Stoller says if the proper term for ‘sex’ are ‘male’ and ‘female’ the corresponding terms for ‘gender’ are ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ these later might be independent of biological sex.

Hence the word ‘sex’ is used to show biological differences between men and women and consider them as primary source from which social inequalities between men and women emanates , where as the words gender express asymmetrical status of men and women whose main source is not biology but values and institutions of society.¹

Gender Inequality:

Thus despite emerging and increasing opportunities for women there are still inequalities between men and women in each and every sphere like education, economy, polity and social sphere i.e. Family, marriage etc. Sex discrimination in education and literacy exist in large measure, no doubt the literacy rate of female has grown from 8 per cent in 1951 to 39 per cent in 2001, but the corresponding increase in male literacy during this period was much more i.e. from 25 per cent to 64 per cent.² According to census 2001 male literacy is 75.85 per cent and female literacy is 54.16 per cent. Thus more than three fourth of the male population and a little more than half of the female population were literate which is a distressing situation. Female work participation is also much lower than the male work participation both in rural and urban India. According to census 2001 women work participant rate is 30.8 per cent and 11.9 per cent as compared to male work participate rate in rural and urban India respectively. Thus there is wide gap between male and female work participation rate, more over the occupational distribution of women indicates the gender segregation of task and the underlying reality of illiteracy among female workers which confines them to low paid and unskilled jobs as compared to males.³

Similarly women are poorly represented in political and decision making bodies women representation in the Lok Sabha has never reached the mark of 10 per cent of the total member of the house. The highest representation of women was in the 13^th Lok Sabha (1999) with 9 per cent of the total members. Even in the state legislature the representation of women is worse. Hence women remain subordinate in spite of their reservation at gross root level.⁴

Actually the status that is accorded to women by law and by the constitution of India there is a gap between the theoretical possibilities and their actual realization i.e. a gap between the stated social objective and achievement, between legal frame work and empirical realities. In this way we find that reform in law and other policies don’t always make the desired impact or change because of structural unprepared ness of Indian society to accept their goals and means. Thus there are some sociological reasons which are responsible for gender inequality and declining sex ratio in Indian society which are discussed as below.

Normative Structure and Gender Inequality:

Social structure cultural norms and value system are important determents of women’s roles and their position in society. They influence social expectations regarding behaviour of two sexes. These normative structure vary from region to region, time to time and within time from one group to another group, nonetheless, there are some values which are being practiced through out the ages one of the most conspicuous value is patriarchy. According to Nelly P. Stromquist (1998) patriarchy is a historical system of dominance of men over women. Thus social structure of patriarchal order subordinate women to men and perpetuate all kinds of discrimination and oppressions against women in India in general and north India in particular, which resulted into the behavioral violence like violence within the family, at the work place, insults, oppression etc. The feelings of subordination often destroys self-esteem, self-respect, its sets limits on women aspirations so on.⁵ In this way patriarchal ideology as a cultural norm enforce gender construction which is oriented toward hierarchical relations between the sexes and neglect of women (girl Childs) in Indian society.

Thus the normative structure of the Indian society is the greatest obstacle to the status of women, as there is a considerable ambiguity about the status of women. Although some sacred text give them an exalted status by saying “ the God reside or live where women are worshipped” but there is another profile of women that she is believe to be fickle and fragile impurity and thoughtless. In this way the normative structure of the Indian society perpetuates gender inequality and violence and have a major influence in shaping attitudes as well as behaviour patterns of human groups towards women (girl child) and the emerging trend of declining sex ratio cannot be viewed in isolation from it.⁶

Institution of Family and Gender Inequality:

The institution of family and types of family organization provide the major contours of the socio-cultural setting in which women are born, brought up, and live their lives. This institution of family in the Indian society have implications for the status of women and is more or less responsible for gender inequality in the society.⁶

Indian family system are joint and patriarchal the status structure is very complex, one of the determining factor of status in the family is sex. The women member of the family get a subordinate status i.e. as a wife, as a mother, as a daughter and as a sister is subordinate to male member of the family. Women are primarily associated with the home, as home makers they are expected to look after domestic chores such as cooking and serving foods, they are expected to play the role of mother to nourish the children, as a sister to care the sibling and as a daughter to help the mother in domestic chores. Thus all the work that women do viewed collectively as being an important component of feminine role and it is not forgotten that they are being performed by those who have certain identity in the family i.e. As mother, as sister so on.⁶Thus it is socially acceptable that within the family the male is the master and women is inferior and subordinate, social pressure force women to maintain this status quo. A women who do not accept this traditional role of submissiveness and subordination need to be tamed into accepting the particular position and any means including varying types of violence is justified in achieving this goals.

Thus in the Indian patrilineal and patrilocal family system, a son is looked upon as the father successor and supporter of the parents in old age and perform the last ritual when they die. Where as on the other hand a daughter even in domestic ritual cannot take the place of a son and a discriminatory feeling about girl is existed in the family that a girl is of no use in her family, her contribution will have to be made in some common description of a daughter in family like “a bird of passage, another’s property, a guest in parents house, a things which has to be given away so on”. Sociologist and lawyers Freeman and Maidment agree that all these problem of discrimination and violence against women is deep rooted in societal one, arising out of the family system. Thus the female or the girl child is neglected and crushed from birth and even before birth in the family, she is socialized and conditioned to accept all the humiliation heaped on her and women today are not safe in and secure in their own family, the concept of home, sweet home is no more for many women they become the victim of men in their own familie. In this way family which traditionally perceived as an arena of love, affection, gentleness and a centre of solidarity and warmth has now become a centre of discrimination, exploitation, assault and violence ranging from slapping, homicidal assault, infanticide, foeticide etc.

Institution of Marriage and Gender inequality:

Like the institution of family, the institution of marriage also greatly responsible for many problems of major importance for women. various issues like age at marriage, procedure for contracting and executing marriage, customs of dowry and bride wealth, pattern of presentation between the wife and the husband’s kin groups, multiplicity of spouses, divorce and separation, widowhood and remarriage are vitally relevant for assessing women status in the society.⁶

The term used it for this institution in Indian society is “Vivah” i.e. marriage, vi-vah means to carry. Marriage thus signifies the transfer of a female from one family to another, this transfer of female in Indian society is a mere transfer from one patriarchal group to another i.e. Her natal patriarchal group (father , brothers etc.) to that of her husband and father in-laws where they perform the inferior and subordinate role. It is an inescapable choice because the person of pubescent daughter in a house unwed and unclaimed is uncomfortable, even ritually dangerous. It was believe to be a sin to keep a daughter or girl in her parental home after she started menstruating. Thus the unmarried girl may bring social disgrace, but on the contrary the need for marrying off a grown sons is not quite so urgently felt as that of marrying a daughter in Indian society. This implies that women are discriminated in each and every sphere in their life. As the institution of marriage mature discrimination and violence prevail in each and every sphere i.e. during the selection of spouse, during marriage, after marriage i.e. violence prevail in each and every form.

Thus according to Hindu Dharma Sastra individual has to pass through many samskar and each in one way or other bow the seed of discrimination or inequality against the female, On the birth of male child the period of ritual uncleanness was seven days and for girl child it was fifteen days. In this way female child is unwelcome in Indian society. All these ingrained hatred toward the female or girl give way to further discrimination and violence in the institution of marriage, like dowry, bride price, divorce, widowhood etc. Wife on account of their failure to bring the promised or expected dowry have been beaten up, kept without food for days together, locked up in dingy rooms, tortured physically and mentally, strangulated to burn alive or lead to commit suicide. Various act of non physical violence such as harassment insulting behavior, cession of marital intercourse and refusal to provide treatment, food, clothing or accommodation by the husband. Dowry indicate a loss of status for girl in her father’s house where she becomes liability rather than asset. This social evil is widely prevalent in the institution of marriage and there are numbers of social and cultural sanctions for the practice of dowry and the monster of dowry has ruined families and drunk the blood of many girls.⁷

Declining Sex Ratio In India:

As discussed above that the women and especially the girl children in India has been the most vulnerable for centuries, and are even today, vulnerable to deprivation as well as discrimination. Our social set up, societal laws, customs, traditions, religious beliefs and above all the sophisticated medical technology has shattered the natural laws for balancing its natural sex ratio. Sex ratio i.e. the number of females per thousand males is one of the important demographic indicator of social health of a society, it is a sensitive indicator of women status, imbalance in sex ratio generates a lot of demographic, social and ethical problems. Declining sex ratio has become one of the major social problems of Indian society. It has decline from 946 in 1901 to 927 in 1991, It means that the sex ratio of the country has fallen 19 points in 40 years, as shown in the below table 1.1 which present the trend in sex ratio in India since 1901 to 2001.

The sex ratio in the country had always remained unfavorable to females it has shown a long term declining trend. The sex ratio at the beginning of the twenty century was 972 and there after showed continuous decline until 1941. In 1951 there is a marginal increase of one point, but there after it again dropped for two consecutive decades to reach 930 in 1971. In fact between 1961-71 the country saw the sharpest decline of 11 points in the sex ratio, there after it fluctuated marginally around 930 in successive censuses. Although decennial census of India 2001, recorded 6 points increase in the sex ratio i.e. from 927 in 1991 to 933 in 2001, but it remain lower than that was in 1951.

Table 1.1 : Sex Ratio in India from 1901-2001.

Sl. No.	census year	Sex Ratio
1	1901	972
2	1911	964
3	1921	955
4	1931	950
5	1941	945
6	1951	946
7	1961	941
8	1971	930
9	1981	934
10	1991	927
11	2001	933

Source: Census of India, 2001.

Sex ratio is not uniform in all the states and union territories of the country. High sex ratio as per census 2001 was recorded in the state of Kerala with 1058 females. It was lowest in the Daman and Diu with 709 females. Among all the districts in India, Mahe district in Daman and Diu recorded lowest sex ratio with 591 females. As census 2001 registering an improvement of six points from 927 in 1991 to 933 in 2001 census. But a matter of serious concern is the decline in child sex ratio i.e. the number of female children under 5 for every 1000 males children under 5. The 1991 census tabulated for the first time sex ratio for the age group 0-6 and 7 and above separately. From the single year age data by sex, it has always been possible to obtain sex ratio statistic for any age group.⁸

India is one of the few countries in the World to have a low sex ratio, as the over all sex ratio in the country is declining steadily during the last half century. It has decline form 976 in 1961 to 964 in 1971, 962 in 1981 to 945 in 1991 and now to 927 in 2001. It is clear that the sex ratio in the age group 0-6 has decreased at a much faster pace than the over all sex ratio of the country after 1981. The juvenile sex ratio has been declining in all states and union territories. However this decline is lower in southern states as compared to north Indian states.

3.1 Declining Sex Ratio in Major Indian States:

The overall sex ratio of India is dependent on the sex ratio obtained in different states and union territories and their relative weights in terms of size of population. Table 1.2 presents the sex ratio of the total population for 1991 and 2001 census for all the states and union territories. The diversity in sex ratio among the states and union territories is phenomenal. According to census of India 2001, the sex ratio among the major states ranged from 861 in north Indian states of Haryana to 1058 in southern states of Kerala, as shown in the table.

In 1991 also Haryana with a sex ratio of 865 was at the bottom with Kerala 1036 at the top. The improvement in the over all sex ratio between 1991 and 2001 is however noticed in various states and union territories in the table 1.2 and fig 1.1.

But in contrast there has been a decline in sex ratio in Gujarat and Maharastra on the one hand and in north Indian states on the other i.e. Haryana (865 to 861), Himachal Pradesh (976 to 970), Punjab (882 to 874), Chandigarh (790 to 773) and Delhi (827 to 821). A very substantial decline of 60 points in Daman and Diu and 141 points in Dadra and Nagar Haveli (Premi, 2001: 1875). This is clearly evident from the above table.

Table: 1.2 Overall Sex Ratio in India as per census 1991 and 2001.

S, No.	India and State/ Union territory	Sex ratio
S, No.	India and State/ Union territory	1991	2001
	INDIA	927	933
01	Jammu and Kashmir	896	900
02	Himachal Pradesh	976	970
03	Punjab	882	874
04	Chandigarh *	790	773
05	Uttaranchal	936	964
06	Haryana	865	861
07	Delhi *	827	821
08	Rajasthan	910	922
09	Uttar Pradesh	876	898
10	Bihar	907	921
11	Sikkim	878	875
12	Arunachal Pradesh	859	901
13	Nagaland	886	909
14	Manipur	958	978
15	Mizoram	921	938
16	Tripura	945	950
17	Meghalaya	955	975
18	Assam	923	932
19	West Bengal	917	934
20	Jharkhand	922	941
21	Orissa	971	972
22	Chhatisgarh	985	990
23	Madhya Pradesh	912	920
24	Gujarat	934	921
25	Daman and Diu *	969	709
26	Dadra and Nagar Haveli *	952	811
27	Maharashtra	934	922
28	Andhra Pradesh	972	978
29	Karnataka	960	964
30	Goa	967	960
31	Lakshadweep *	943	947
32	Kerala	1,036	1,058
33	Tamil Nadu	974	986
35	Pondicherry *	979	1,001
35	Andaman and Nicobar Islands *	818	846

Source : Census of India, 2001.

Rural Urban Sex Ratio:

The situation is more or less similar in rural-urban sex ratio in India and the trend of declining is far stronger in urban rather than in rural India. The rural sex ratio for India stand at 946, which is a better picture as compared to sex ratio for total or urban population. An observation of the data would reveal that only seven states/union territories have shown a lower sex ratio in rural areas as compared to the overall. These are Pondicherry (990), Meghalaya (972), Manipur(969),Tripura(948), Delhi (806), Chandigarh(621), and Daman Diu (585) as shown in table 1.3.

Table: 1.3 Overall Rural-Urban Sex Ratio in India as per census, 2001.

Sl. No.	India/State/Union territory	Rural/ Urban	sex ratio
	India	Total	933
0		Rural	946
		Urban	901
1	Jammu and Kashmir	Rural	927
		Urban	822
2	Himachal Pradesh	Rural	991
		Urban	797
3	Punjab	Rural	887
		Urban	848
4	Chandigarh *	Rural	621
		Urban	792
5	Uttaranchal	Rural	1,007
		Urban	850
6	Haryana	Rural	867
		Urban	847
7	Delhi *	Rural	806
		Urban	822
8	Rajasthan	Rural	932
		Urban	890
9	Uttar Pradesh	Rural	904
		Urban	879
10	Bihar	Rural	927
		Urban	869
11	Sikkim	Rural	881
		Urban	828
12	Arunachal Pradesh	Rural	915
		Urban	850
13	Nagaland	Rural	932
		Urban	809
14	Manipur	Rural	969
		Urban	1,009
15	Mizoram	Rural	925
		Urban	951
16	Tripura	Rural	948
		Urban	962
17	Meghalaya	Rural	972
		Urban	985
18	Assam	Rural	940
		Urban	878
19	West Bengal	Rural	950
		Urban	893
20	Jharkhand	Rural	963
		Urban	870
21	Orissa	Rural	986
		Urban	895
22	Chhatisgarh	Rural	1,005
		Urban	932
23	Madhya Pradesh	Rural	927
		Urban	899
24	Gujarat	Rural	946
		Urban	880
25	Daman and Diu *	Rural	585
		Urban	983
26	Dadra and Nagar Haveli *	Rural	850
		Urban	691
27	Maharashtra	Rural	959
		Urban	874
28	Andhra Pradesh	Rural	983
		Urban	965
29	Karnataka	Rural	976
		Urban	940
30	Goa	Rural	988
		Urban	933
31	Lakshadweep *	Rural	957
		Urban	936
32	Kerala	Rural	1,059
		Urban	1,058
33	Tamil Nadu	Rural	992
		Urban	980
34	Pondicherry *	Rural	990
		Urban	1,006
35	Andaman and Nicobar Islands *	Rural	862
		Urban	815

Source: Census of India, 2001.

It also shows that the male-female imbalance are much less in rural areas as compared to urban areas, Kerala is only states where the total, rural and urban sex ratio are almost similar.

India’s urban sex ratio stand at 901 females per 1000 males, much below the national average. There are three states/union territories viz. Chandigarh (792), Himachal Pradesh (797) and Dadar and Nagar Havali (691) with an urban sex ratio of less than 800.

The rural-urban differential in juvenile sex ratio also reveals that rural sex ratio has always exceeded the urban one, however both have been declining over time, the rate of decline is much more than that of rural areas, except for Tamil Nadu as per census 2001 the child sex ratio has registered fourteen point decline in the rural areas at the national level, while this decline is thirty-two points in urban areas. The most disturbing aspect is the decline in the rural areas of 26 states and union territories as per 2001 census. This decline has been very steep in Punjab (82) points followed by Chandigarh, Haryana and Uttranchal all in the northern region of the country.⁹

From the above analysis it is evident that the easy availability of sex selective technology followed by abortion is greatly responsible for decline in sex ratio and a matter of serious concern is the decline in 0-6 year population. According to census 2001 Punjab is in the top with 793 females per 1000 males child lowest in the country followed by Haryana with 820 and the National capital Delhi find a place after Chandigarh (845) with 865 . Thus the female child are discriminated from womb to tomb which is evident from the the above discussion.

CONCLUSION:

From this analysis we can say that in spite of increase in the level of social awareness, growing education, prosperity etc. and of various legislation for social development of women like domestic violence Act 2005, dowry prohibition Act 1961 as amended in 1986, sati prohibition Act 1987, prohibition of child marriage Act 2006, National Commission for Women Act 1990 etc. the women are not empowered to get rid from the shackles of patriarchal structure inside and out side their home. In this way discrimination of women from womb to tomb is prevalent in the society and numbers of females decreasing in our society. Glance at daily news papers would bug the splashing news of female foeticide, infanticide, child prostitution, child marriage, sexual abuse, dowry deaths, eve teasing, abduction etc. are easily found in Indian society. Thus there are various socio-economic and technological factors of declining sex ratio in India.

REFERENCES:

1. Haralambous, Michael. 1995. Sociology Themes and Perspectives.Collin Publisher London.

2. Mudunuri, Lakshmipathi. 2007.et.al.Women Empowerment Challenges and Stratigies. New Delhi: Regal Publication.

3. Murthy,N.N Linga. et.al. 2007. Toward Gender Equality: India’s Experience. Serial Publication New Delhi.

4. Kandu.Amita. et.al. 2007. Indian Social Developent Report, Council for Social Development. Oxford University Press.

5. N, Andal. 2002. Women and Indian Society (Options and Costrants), Rawat Publication, Jiapur and New Delhi,.

6. GOI. 1974. Towards Equality; Report of the Committee on the Status of Women in India, Ministry of Education and Social Welfare, Department of Social Welfare, New Delhi.

7. Sahay,Sushama. 1998. Women Empowerment: Approaches and Strategies. New Delhi: Discovery Publication.

8. Premi, Mahendra K. 2001. The Missing Girl Child, Economic and Political Weekly ,May 26.

9. Goswami, Sambodh .2007. Female infanticide and child marriage. Rawat publication Jaipur.

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11. Giddens, Anthony.1998. Sociology. III ed.,Polity Press Black Well Publisher, U.K.

Received on 10.11.2010

Accepted on 28.01.2011