Area under different crops and their production in Kashmir valley under Dogras(1846-1947 A.D.)

 

Mohad Amin Sofi*

 

 

ABSTRACT:

This paper aims at exploring the area under different agricultural crops and their production of Kashmir valley under Dogras. It throws light upon the area under rice, wheat, maize, barley, cotton and tobacco from 1891-1958.The paper makes it clear that year by year land under above cited crops increased owing to increasing pressure of population on land. It also informs us about the average yield of  per kharwar of land (one kharwar of land equivalent to thirty two canals of land and one kharwar of crop equivalent to eighty kgs crop).The paper clarifies that there was a fluctuation of yields year by year owing to low cropping intensity, low use of fertilizers and lack of sufficient mechanization, poor economic status of large number of farmers etc.It also throws light upon the yield of said crops in totality were low than the existed potential of land. When we compare the yield of agricultural crops under Dogras with the present times we find the present yield is five times more than that of Dogras. It clearly indicates that the increasing yield of agricultural crops due to advancement of agricultural technology, high use of fertilizers and manures and agricultural operations are carefully timed.

 

During the Dogra regime land distribution in Kashmir was highly defective and there were wide disparities in the distribution of land in spite of ceiling of the land settlement as the absentee landlordism was still in existence and even the surplus land was not properly distributed among the landless and small farmers who were actual tillers of land. The valley of Kashmir because of its physical character remained by and large aloof from the rest of the world including India. The system of land cultivation and the implements used in agriculture were somewhat different from that use in elsewhere. The plough used was very primitive. The paper reflects the nature of the agrarian economy of the valley was not developed during the dogra regime. The paper is based on statistical data with graph of each data. One can understand the agrarian status of Kashmir valley by sighting the graph under Dogras.    

 

 

INTRODUCTION:

The territories of Jammu and Kashmir State which are almost entirely mountainous, occupy a unique position in the topography of the India Sub-continent. They vary in height from hillocks on the Punjab border to the great Himalayan and Kara-Coram ranges. Among these mountains the valley of Kashmir is a level plain.1                                                            

 

The agro-based economy of Kashmir Province depended mostly on the out-turn of land in the form of foodstuffs, {both commercial and non commercial}.Some of the important cereals produced in Kashmir were mentioned below after methodology and objectives.

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       

METHODOLOGY:

The paper is based on the source material comprising published and unpublished material. The material constitutes official documents available at the state Archives, National Archives of India, India Agriculture research and research libraries not only this, much of the statistical data have been drawn from Annual Administrative Reports of various departments and Indian Agricultural Statistical reports which helps us to have a clear vision of the position of agrarian sector as it existed then in Kashmir:

 

OBJECTIVES:

The objective of this paper is to highlight thoroughly upon the  land under agricultural crops and their production. The Paper also aims at exploring the total land which was under different crops in Kashmir valley. Their average yield per kharwar and total production of crops year by year right from 1891-1958.

Analysis and interpretation:                                               

Rice:

Rice has always been an important crop in Kashmir and chief article of revenue to the Government. Although the average yield of the unhusked rice in Kashmir was 17 Kharwars of per Kharwar land. The rice fields were manured with turf clods of fresh soil and paddy-straw rejected by cattle and mixed with their dung. The quality of the soil was improved by turning over growing crops and grass with a plough and then mixing  them in the soil. The clods were cut from the sides of the water courses and were rich selt.The soil used to be ploughed three or four times because the sons of the soil believed that the greater number of ploughing would be the out-turn of the crops. 2  The area under rice in Kharwars(00) and average yield per kharwar in Kharwars from 1891-1947 are mentioned below:

 

 

Table 1.1: Area, Average Yield, Total Production of Kashmir Valley

Item	Year	Area under rice in kharwars (00)	Average yield per kharwars in kharwars	Total Production in kharwars(000)
RICE	1891-92	473.38	22.04	1043.32
	1910-11	750.08	20.04	1503.15
	1911-12	765.66	20.04	1534.37
	1912-13	746.61	20.12	1502.17
	1917-18	721.92	20	1443.83
	1918-19	752.89	20	1505.77
	1923-24	1037.62	19.25	1997.42
	1924-25	1048.92	19.25	2019.17
	1925-26	1076.35	19.75	2125.78
	1926-27	1066.47	19.75	2106.28
	1927-28	1066.23	20.18	2151.65
	1929-30	1057.4125	19.6	2072.52
	1930-31	1126.675	19.6	2208.28
	1931-32	1118.89	18	2014
	1934-35	1146.85	18	2064.33
RICE	1935-36	836.35	18	1505.42
	1936-37	898.30	18	1616.93
	1937-38	901.11	18.04	1625.59
	1938-39	864.99	16.92	1463.55
	1943-44	1243.44	18.08	2248.14
	1944-45	1243.44	16.72	2079.04
	1945-46	1243.44	15.96	1984.53
	1946-47	1243.44	15.96	1984.53
	X1947-48	1242.5	17	2112.25
	X1948-49	1242.5	17	2112.25
	X1949-50	975	16.96	1653.6
	X1950-51	985	19.6	1930.6
	X1951-52	985	20.12	1981.82
	X1952-53	1242.5	21	2609.25
	X1953-54	1192.5	19.4	2313.45
	X1954-55	1105	23.52	2598.96
	X1955-56	1157.5	23.4	2708.55
	X1956-57	1657.5	23.52	3898.44
	X1957-58	880	23.4	2059.2

Source:-Agricultural Statistic of India

Note: - The data values from (1891-1919) and (1936-1939) contains Kashmir Valley only while from (1923-1935) and (1943-1947) contains Kashmir, Ladakh and Jammu.

 

Wheat:

Wheat was the third important cereal crop of the valley. It was grown in valley as well as in cold arid zone of Ladakh. The productivity of wheat in its dominant zone of cultivation was low. Wheat cultivation was practiced in negligible area. Its cultivation was entirely confined to dry lands and it was sown in late autumn and reaped in june³. Therefore, the area under wheat in Kharwars (00) and average yield per kharwars in kharwars from 1891-1947 are mentioned below.

Table 1.2:_ Area, Average Yield, Total Production of Kashmir Valley

Item	Year	Area under wheat in kharwars (00)	Average yield per kharwars in kharwars	Total Production in kharwars (000)
WHEAT	1891-92	74.6	13.76	102.649
	1910-11	114.1725	12.96	147.967
	1911-12	157.7925	16.96	267.616
	1912-13	177.7	16.16	287.163
	1917-18	191.705	14.32	274.521
	1918-19	180.2025	13.25	238.768
	1923-24	1181.6	13.75	1624.7
	1924-25	1102.59	14.15	1571.19
	1925-26	1163.9525	14.96	1741.272
	1926-27	1121.505	14	1570.107
	1927-28	1246.035	14.32	1784.322
	1928-29	1201.63	13	1562.119
	1930-31	1201.63	13.16	1448.333
	1931-32	1100.5575	13.25	1715.189
	1934-35	1294.4825	13.76	309.899
	1935-36	225.2175	14.04	341.666
WHEAT	1936-37	243.355	17.15	2340.975
	1937-38	245.8925	14.04	345.23307
	1938-39	200.655	15.24	305.79822
	1943-44	136.4575	13.6	185.5822
	1944-45	136.4575	13.72	187.21969
	1945-46	136.4575	12.28	167.56981
	1946-47	136.4575	12.28	167.56981
	X1947-48	1365	17.75	701.125
	X1948-49	395	18.68	744.97
	X1949-50	395	18.68	744.97
	X1950-51	512.5	19.08	977.86
	X1951-52	442.5	12.36	546.96
	X1952-53	620	20.08	1244.96
	X1953-54	575	13.72	788.9
	X1954-55	687.5	12.76	877.25
	X1955-56	760	13.36	1015.36
	X1956-57	820	13.32	1092.24
	X1957-58	757.5	13.08	990.81
		880	23.4	2059.2

Source:-Agricultural Statistic of India

Note: - The data values from (1891-1919) and (1935-1947) contains Kashmir Valley only while from (1923-1935) contains Kashmir, Ladakh and Jammu.

 

Maize:

It was next most important  crop. In the black peaty land lying  along with Jhelum, and in the high villages where numbers of cattle graze and manure was plentiful, very fine crops were grown. As a rule it was grown on dry land and was seldom irrigated⁴. As a diet maize ranks after rice. But the villages, when money was scarced, sold their rice and subsisted on maize. The area under maize in kharwars(oo) and average yield per kharwars from 1891 to 1947 are mentioned below;

Table 1.3- Area, Average Yield, Total Production of Kashmir Valley

Item	Year	Area under maize in kharwars(00)	Average yield per kharwars in kharwars	Total Production in kharwars(000)
MAIZE	1891-92	326.61	19	620.55
	1910-11	684.8525	18	1232.73
	1923-24	1350.2075	15	2025.31
	1924-25	1293.435	15	1940.15
	1925-26	1325.3375	14	1855.47
	1926-27	1302.2025	13.36	1739.74
	1927-28	1346.4325	14	1885
	1928-29	1360.8375	15	2041.25
	1930-31	1483.8775	15.76	2338.59
	1931-32	1476.825	14	2066.93
	1934-35	1517.38	13.96	2118.26
	1935-36	862.9575	13.96	1204.68867
MAIZE	1936-37	859.465	14.96	1285.75964
	1937-38	831.3935	14.96	1243.764676
	1938-39	840.7175	17.12	1439.30836
	1943-44	1884.84	16.84	3174.07056
	1944-45	1884.84	14.68	2766.94512
	1945-46	1884.84	13.48	2540.76432
	1946-47	1884.84	18	3392.712
	X1947-48	1885	18	3393
	X1948-49	652.5	17	1109.25
	X1949-50	652.5	21.24	1385.91
	X1950-51	925	16.08	1487.4
	X1951-52	925	16.64	1539.2
	X1952-53	925	16.64	1539.2
	X1953-54	990	20.04	1983.96
	X1954-55	590	14.88	877.92
	X1955-56	1147.5	14.96	1716.66
	X1956-57	1110	14.56	1616.16
	X1957-58	857.5	15	1286.25

Source:-Agricultural Statistic of India

Note: - The data values from (1891-1911) and (1936-1939) contains Kashmir Valley only while from (1923-1935) and (1943-1947) contains Kashmir, Ladakh and Jammu.

 

Barley:

t was grown throughout the valley on the lands which were dependent on rains for moisture at an elevation of 15000 feet. However in the villages situated at an elevation of 7ooo feet,a peculiar type of this crop known as grim or Tibetan barley was grown which was an important food staple for the people living there⁵. Therefore the area under barley in kharwars (00) and average yield per kharwar in kharwars from 1891 to 1947 are mentioned below.

 

Item	Year	Area under barley in kharwars(00)	Average yield per kharwars in kharwars	Total Production in kharwars(000)
barley	1891-92	75.2575	16	120.41
	1910-11	25.9025	15	38.85
	1911-12	39.7525	16	63.6
	1912-13	52.2325	16	83.57
	1917-18	59.1	17	100.47
	1918-19	61.8025	15.25	94.24
	1923-24	216.5675	15.75	341.09
	1924-25	206.245	16.16	333.29
	1925-26	199.415	16.16	322.25
	1926-27	181.895	17	309.22
	1927-28	273.6625	16.92	463.03
	1928-29	304.52	18.76	571.27
	1929-30	195.615	15.68	306.72
	1930-31	186.855	17.44	325.87
	1931-32	188.06	16.84	316.69
	1934-35	170.92	15	256.38
	1935-36	23.2	17	39.44
Barley	1936-37	21.395	17	36.3715
	1937-38	13.57	17	23.069
	1938-39	8.99	16.92	15.21108
	1943-44	254.3625	15.68	398.8404
	1944-45	254.3625	18.2	462.93975
	1945-46	254.3625	16	406.98
	1946-47	254.3625	16	406.98
	X1947-48	255	17	433.5
	X1948-49	150	17.2	258
	X1949-50	97.5	28.72	280.02
	X1950-51	135	12.24	165.24
	X1951-52	125	14.28	178.5
	X1952-53	172.5	5.88	101.43
	X1953-54	195	13.68	266.76
	X1954-55	125	11.2	140
	X1955-56	145	14.96	216.77
	X1956-57	140	12.72	178.08
	X1957-58	102.5	13.72	140.63

Note: - The data values from (1891-1911) and (1935-1939) contains Kashmir Valley only while from (1923-1934) and (1943-1947) contains Kashmir, Ladakh and Jammu.

 

Cotton:

It was grown in every situation. Sown in May the crop was harvested in September and Octuber.Sikh rulers of Kashmir introduced brown cotton from Yarkand but on its third sowing it changed completely into white probably because of ecological conditions. The cloths made from it were generally coarse and flimsy⁶. Therefore the area under cotton in kharwars (00) and average yield per kharwar in kharwars from 1891-1935 are mentioned below;

 

Table 1.5: Area, Average Yield, Total Production of Kashmir Valley

Item	Year	Area under cotton in kharwars(00)	Average yield per kharwars in kharwars	Total Production in kharwars(000)
Cotton	1891-92	41.2225	1.84	7.58
	1917-18	14.605	2	2.92
	1918-19	25.6925	2.2	5.62
	1927-28	67.9425	2.2	14.94
	1929-30	46.7025	1.96	9.15
	1931-32	66.87	1.84	12.3
	1934-35	46.4575	1.5	6.96
Cotton	1935-36	7.085	1.5	1.06
	1936-37	8.595	1.3	1.11
	1946-47	59.9975	1.84	11.03

Source:-Agricultural Statistic of India

Note: - The data values from (1891-1919) contains Kashmir Valley only while from (1927-1935)  contains Kashmir, Ladakh and Jammu.

 

Tobacco:

It was  raised but to a very limited extent .The village Sihamu, situated between Baramula and Sopore was famous for its cultivation .Small quantities of its were exported to Ladakh⁷. Therefore the area under cotton in Kharwas(00) and average yield per Kharwar in Kharwars from 1891 to 1935 are mentioned below;-

 

Table 1.6: Area, Average Yield, Total Production of Kashmir Valley

Item	Year	Area under tobacco in kharwars(00)	Average yield per kharwars in kharwars	Total Production in kharwars(000)
Tobacco	1891-92	9.65	14	13.51
	1910-11	2.245	15	3.36
	1911-12	2.5225	17	4.28
	1912-13	2.165	17	3.68
	1917-18	2.18	16	3.48
	1918-19	2.2475	16.48	3.7
	1923-24	11.4225	18.2	20.78
	1924-25	9.6625	19.04	18.39
	1925-26	96.45	19	18.35
	1926-27	13.125	20	26.25
	1927-28	10.9825	20	21.96
	1928-29	10.915	17.68	19.29
	1929-30	9.7925	18	17.62
	1930-31	13.3575	17	24.04
	1931-32	13.9125	16.15	22.46
	1946-47	12.175	16.48	20.06

Source:-Agricultural Statistic of India

Note: - The data values from (1891-1919) contains Kashmir Valley only while from (1923-1947)  contains Kashmir, Ladakh and Jammu.

 

Prices

Note :-The revenue collected in kind was commuted into cash at certain fixed rates per kharwar during the year 1846 A.D.

 

2.Wheat per kharwar                                          2                                      X                                 X

3.Barley per kharwar                                          1                                      4                                  x                                                                        

4.Cotton per kharwar                                         5                                       8                                 x           

5.Maize per kharwar                                           1                                      X                                 x

Note:-     Kharwar as weight:-one  kharwar=16 track=80 kgs

Kharwar as area:-one kharwar=4 acres=32 kannels

One track  = 5 kgs      

One rupees =16 annas

 

Table 1.7 Area,average Yield, Total Production of Different crops in Jammu and Kashmir from 1947-58

Item	Year	Area under rice in kharwars (00)	Average yield per kharwars in kharwars	Total Production in kharwars(000)
RICE	1891-92	473.38	22.04	1043.32
	1910-11	750.08	20.04	1503.15
	1911-12	765.66	20.04	1534.37
	1912-13	746.61	20.12	1502.17
	1917-18	721.92	20	1443.83
	1918-19	752.89	20	1505.77
	1923-24	1037.62	19.25	1997.42
	1924-25	1048.92	19.25	2019.17
	1925-26	1076.35	19.75	2125.78
	1926-27	1066.47	19.75	2106.28
	1927-28	1066.23	20.18	2151.65
	1929-30	1057.4125	19.6	2072.52
	1930-31	1126.675	19.6	2208.28
	1931-32	1118.89	18	2014
	1934-35	1146.85	18	2064.33
RICE	1935-36	836.35	18	1505.42
	1936-37	898.30	18	1616.93
	1937-38	901.11	18.04	1625.59
	1938-39	864.99	16.92	1463.55
	1943-44	1243.44	18.08	2248.14
	1944-45	1243.44	16.72	2079.04
	1945-46	1243.44	15.96	1984.53
	1946-47	1243.44	15.96	1984.53
	X1947-48	1242.5	17	2112.25
	X1948-49	1242.5	17	2112.25
	X1949-50	975	16.96	1653.6
	X1950-51	985	19.6	1930.6
	X1951-52	985	20.12	1981.82
	X1952-53	1242.5	21	2609.25
	X1953-54	1192.5	19.4	2313.45
	X1954-55	1105	23.52	2598.96
	X1955-56	1157.5	23.4	2708.55
	X1956-57	1657.5	23.52	3898.44
	X1957-58	880	23.4	2059.2

Source:-Agricultural Statistic of India

 

Table 1.8: Area, Average Yield, Total Productio of Jammu and Kashmir

Year	Area under wheat in kharwars in Jammu and Kashmir(00)	Average yield per kharwar	Total Production(000)
1947-48	1365	17.75	701.12
1948-49	395	18.68	744.97
1949-50	395	18.68	744.97
1950-51	512.5	19.08	977.86
1951-52	442.5	12.36	546.96
1952-53	620	20.08	1244.96
1953-54	575	13.72	788.9
1954-55	687.5	12.76	877.25
1955-56	760	12.76	1015.36
1956-57	820	13.36	1092.24
1957-58	757.5	13.08	990.81

Source:-Agricultural Statistic of India

 

 

Table 1.9 Area, Average Yield, Total Production of Jammu and Kashmir

Year	Area under Maize in kharwars(00)	Average yield per kharwars	Total Production(000)
1947-48	1885	18	3393
1948-49	652.5	17	1109.25
1949-50	652.5	21.24	1385.91
1950-51	925	16.08	1487.4
1951-52	925	16.64	1539.2
1952-53	925	16.64	1539.2
1953-54	990	20.04	1983.96
1954-55	590	14.88	877.92
1955-56	1147.5	14.96	1716.66
1956-57	1110	14.56	1616.16
1957-58	857.5	15	1286.25

Source:-Agricultural Statistic of India

 

Table 1.10 Area, Average Yield, Total Production of Kashmir Valley

Year	Area under Barley in kharwars(00)	Average yield per kharwar	Total production(000)
1947-48	255	17	433.5
1948-49	150	17.2	258
1949-50	97.5	18.72	280.02
1950-5	135	12.24	165.24
1951-52	125	14.28	178.5
1952-53	172.5	15.88	101.43
1953-54	195	13.68	266.76
1954-55	125	11.2	140
1955-56	145	14.96	216.77
1956-57	140	12.72	178.08
1957-58	102.5	13.72	140.63

Source:-Agricultural Statistic of India

                              

Expansion of land under cultivation of crops

he land settlement of 1889 not only settled the problems like collection of revenue fixation of term and allotment of land but it also worked for the increase of the area of land from non cultivable to uncultivable and then to cultivable by making its allotment to landless agriculturist.

 

The settlement work of Lawrence proved a legacy of the commissionership and received every attention from his successors. In 1914-15 more waste land was brought under cultivation that the cultivable land was witnessing a remarkable expansion due to the growth of population as a consequences even those lands and stretches which were considered from non cultivable were brought under the heads of cultivated and cultivable.8

 

The period of Maharaja Pratap Singh and maharaja Hari Singh i,e  The period from 1885 to 1947 were the period of epoch making and considering reforms of the agrarian system showing signs of improvement. They constructed a number of canals such as Martand canal, Lal Khul, Pratap canal, Ranbir canal, Basantpur canal and upper Jhelum canal. As a result of that more paddy and rain fed lands were made cultivable.

 

Area Under Canal irrigation

Martand canal irrigated south east area of Anantnag district. It took off from the Liddar river, 3 miles above Aish Mogam near Ganeshpur. Its construction was started in 1901 on the alignment of the old Shahi Khul. The canal was opened for irrigation in 1902 at a cost of Rs. 3,87,945. Having a total length of 3425 miles 9.

 

Lal Khul

It irrigated north area of Kashmir especially spore of Baramullah district. It took off from the pohru river at Bimhama.

 

Pratap Canal

It took from the right bank of the Chenab river, it flowed perennially over a length of 24.15 miles commanding an area of 15,000 acre

 

Basantpur Canal

It took off from the right bank of the Ravi river, about 3 miles above the madhopur head works and was in a working order for a length of about 5 miles. Most of areas fall under the canal irrigation including north as well as south Kashmir. There is no denying the fact that the period from 1901 to 1925 was the golden period so far as the extension of irrigation facilities in the state was concerned. The percentage of gross cultivated area which was irrigated increased in the state from 24.09 in 1911 and 31.5 in 1971. The cultivators of the Jammu province particularly were largely benefited 10.

As we know the great depression affected the economy of whole world, it also affected the policy of expansion of cultivable land as shown from the data. The cultivable land expanded largely during the period 1870-1925 and from 1930 to 1947 the cultivable land remained by and large constant in comparison to the years of 1925-1930.

 

                                    

 

Agricultural Calendar

January	February	March	April	May	June	July	August	September	October	November	December
The year was divided into six seasons by Kashmiris, each of two months
1.   Sontb		March 15 to May 15
2.   Grishm		May 15 to July 15
3.   Wairat		July 15 to September 15
4.   Hard		September 15 to November 15
5.   Wandh		November 15 to January
6.   Shishir		January 15 to March 15[1]

 

CROPS

Rabi Crops	Kharif Crops
Barley	Rice
Wheat	Cotton
Oil Seeds	Maize
Pulses	Tobacco
Poppy Seed	Honey
Mustard Seed	Moong
Coriander	Red Pepper

 

March and April                                                  Plough and Manure for rice ,  plough for maize and other Autumn    crops.

April and May                                                      Sow rice, Maize and other autumn crops.

May and June                                                      do   -    do   -    do  -  plant out rice seedlings.

June and July                                                       Harvest wheat and barley

July and August                                                   Weed rice, maize and cotton and harvest linseed.

August and September                                       do  -   do-     d0—and commence picketing cotton.

September and October                                     Harvest rice and maize and other autumn crops.

October to November                                         Harvest rice for first half of October, Ploughing for wheat and barley.

November to December                                     Plough for wheat and barley

December to January                                         Thresh rice and maize and other autumn crops attend to sheep and cattle and weave woolen blankets.

January to February                                           do----      do   -------    do---

February to March                         do ----      do-------  ---  do-------

 

Source;- W.R. Lawrence. Valley of Kashmir

 

CONCLUSION:

Reasons for low production: The yield of various agricultural crops were low and production of food grains and other agricultural commodities was much less than existed potential. Socio economic conditions ,which included, large percentage of small holdings, poor economic status of large number of farmers, poor literacy rate of majority of forming community and even increasing population coupled with frequent seasonal weather fluctuations were some of the reasons advanced for such low production.

 

These reasons along with poor transfer of technology were important in their own ways but a critical analysis has shown some factors responsible for low production of   agriculture crops, i.e. low cropping intensity, low use of fertilizers, lack of sufficient mechanizations and lack of sufficient irrigation facilities.

 

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