INTRODUCTION:

Urbanism is not just limited to the physical changes in the spaces or places but it also indicates widespread transformation of culture, ideas, conduct and imagination about the city. Education acts as one of the driving forces in creating new norms and belief systems among the urban population since most educational institutions first originate in cities. Educational institutions started to grow in Imphal with the advent of colonial modernity; and along with it came other opportunities viz. new professions and career options. Students from all over Manipur came to Imphal for their higher studies. Before long the literate population filled different posts in administration and state offices, indirectly becoming a part of colonial governance.

Education also empowered the modern educated classes with new ideas, perspectives, and intellectual growth. Educational developments were put into use in making Imphal an arena of social and political awakening in the first half of the twentieth century.

In the pre-colonial period, Imphal was the centre of cultural activities under the Manipuri monarch. The Maichous (PanditLiosang), department of scholars included learned people who were the custodians of the Puyas or scriptures written on leaves and barks of trees. The Meiteis had their own script called Meitei Mayek, which was in use amongst the learned men or the royal scribes. It was the official script of the court and many royal documents were written in it including the royal chronicle or Cheitharol Kumbaba, Puyas (manuscripts), religious books, royal decrees etc. The Puyas were manuscripts on religion, medicine, history, dance, drama, philosophy, and architecture etc., written since the 15^th century. However, education was reserved for the nobility, the Brahmins and the royal princes. For the most people, knowledge meant practical skills rather than theoretical learning. Among men, acquisition of martial and athletic skills was considered mandatory. These included proficiency in Polo (Sagol Kanjei), wrestling (Mukna), Boat Race (Heyai), and Foot Race (Lamjel). Similarly among women, skills such as weaving, spinning, dancing and embroidery etc. were considered an essential part of their knowledge system. With its historical experiences of many wars, the Meiteis paid much attention to military and warfare skills.

With no formal education available to the commoners, such skills were transmitted to the next generation through oral narration, family traditions, and apprenticeship. Oral traditions were prevalent in art forms like Lairik-Thiba (chanting and explaining the ancient Hindu religious Scriptures) and Wairi- Liba (story telling). The former required two artistes, who chants the Hindu religious text in Manipuri (Bengali script). Mahabharata and Ramayana were narrated in Manipur long back with the advent of Hinduism in the state and during the period of Bhaiyachandra or Jai Singh (1763-1798), these two forms of art was introduced. Storytelling was performed by artistes who narrated different episodes from Hindu religious epics. These art and music forms spread the religious teachings of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. There were no formal schools to teach this, but the student had to go to the teacher’s house to learn the art. Another story telling tradition was that of Pungawari, which was found in every household. Punga Wari wasfolktales narrated by the elders (mostly grandparents) of the family to the children around the fireplace in the evening.

Coming of the Modern School in Imphal:

Since the beginning of their contact with Manipur, British officials posted in the British Agency mentioned their disgust and bewilderment at the ignorance and “illiteracy” of the Manipuri. R. Brown commented, “So illiterate are they, that some of the highest officials cannot either read or write, and are not a whit ashamed for their want of knowledge.”¹ Similarly B. C Allen wrote, “(Education) received little encouragement in the days of native rule……assistance in formation of schools were declined by the Manipuris who stated that they preferred to remain ignorant.”² They tried to introduce western education in the state in order to recruit Manipuris into the different administrative offices that came with British rule. Though British subjects from nearby territories were often used as the workforce in Manipur, this became an expensive proposition.

The introduction of formal western education in Manipur was initiated in the nineteenth century by early political agents like Captain Gordon, James Johnstone etc. In 1837, Capt. Gordon opened a school in Langthabal on a trial basis which did not succeed³. However, until the last decade of the nineteenth century, progress in western education remained limited. It was unpopular amongst the highly orthodox Hindu community of Imphal and in the rest of the valley. The first Political Agent Captain Gordon established a primary school, however, it went defunct with his untimely death. In 1872, Political Agent Major General W. E Nuthall opened an English School in Imphal. The school was supplied with books, maps and other necessities worth Rs. 400/Rs 500 by the Government of Bengal.⁴ In 1877-78, when Political Agent, James Johnstone reported that there was no demand for education in the state except for 50-60 boys receiving formal education from a school in Imphal, he was referring to the same school. He wrote “Education has certainly retrograded in Manipur instead of advancing”.⁵

The dawn of western education broke in Manipur with the establishment of the Johnstone Middle English School in 1885. James Johnstone in his tenure as the Political Agent in Manipur was able to gain a good rapport with the royalty and the elite classes. He proposed an English medium school in Imphal. His appeal was rejected by the darbar as the Hindu orthodoxy wanted to avoid any association with the European, as they were considered as Mangbaor unclean. The darbar members, consisting mostly of elite classes and religious advisors, considered western education a futile venture as very few people would send their children to schools. In his negotiations with the Maharaja Chandrakirti, Mr. Johnstone recorded the Maharaja’s response was that “the boys of Manipur much preferred playing hockey to learning to read and write and their parents did not care to coerce them.”⁶ Finally, Johnstone managed to persuade General Thangal, who was a very influential member of the darbar. And, in 1885, he finally succeeded in convincing the state to establish an English medium school in the capital. The Johnstone Middle School became one of the important landmarks in colonial Imphal and in the development of western education in Manipur. Between 1885 and 1891, there was no further progress in education as Johnstone was the only school in Imphal until 1891.

Development of western education in Imphal after 1891

1891 marked a watershed in the development of education in Manipur. After the Anglo-Manipur war, the British took over the administration of Manipur until the minor Raja could be installed on the throne in 1907. The role of the Political Agent changed and he was granted more authority than before. He was raised to the position of a regent and a superintendent of the state. In the letter from the Secretary to the Chief Commissioner, Assam, dated 7th October, 1891, he was given full powers to introduce any reforms in the existing administration that was considered as beneficial to the State. The only limitation to his power was that he should not interfere in issues regarding customs and traditions of the Manipuris.⁷ Sir Robert Reid commented, “From 1891, Manipur entered on a new phase of its history characterised, as the terms of the Sanad indicate, by close control by the British government and, indeed, until power was made over to the young Raja and his darbar in 1907, by direct administration by British officers.”⁸ Influential Political Agents like major Maxwell and J. Shakespear took a keen interest in the development of western education. This made the situation conducive for the establishment of schools.

The second factor that helped the development of education was the entry of missionaries. A. Porteous (Acting Political Agent), presiding in the absence of Major Maxwell, finally granted permission to the American Baptist missionary, William Pettigrew to enter Manipur in 1894. Mr. Pettigrew and his organisation, American Baptist Mission, made a huge contribution to the development of education in Manipur. He not only helped the state to set up an organised system of education in the valley, but also in the hills. In the hills, he set up missions, medical and educational institutions. Mr. Pettigrew reached Imphal in the month of January in 1894, prior to which he stayed in Sylhet where he learned Manipuri and Bengali. Initially, he commenced his mission work in Imphal among the Meiteis. Along with a school, he also started a Sunday school. In his letter to Rev D.W Duncan, American Baptist Mission, Boston USA, he mentioned, “From May last year now I opened a day and Sunday school….about 2 miles from the Bungalow, had average attendance of 45 boys who progressed well in Bengali.”⁹ This work in Imphal was short lived as he was asked to leave the valley and was compelled to carry his mission work to the hills amongst the Tangkhul Naga tribes in Ukhrul¹⁰. This was because of the objection of the general public to the presence of a Christian Missionary in Imphal. The school was handed over to the state, however it maintained its name as the Pettigrew School. Political Agent Major Maxwell ordered a grant of Rs. 300 to Mr. Pettigrew for opening a school in the Hill tracts of Ukhrul¹¹. The fear of Christian proselytisation among the Hindu population destroyed any possibility of mission schools in Imphal or in the Hindu dominated valley. However, Mr. Pettigrew continued to assist the Manipur State in educational policies. Despite his exile to the hills, Mr. Pettigrew’s effort along with the help of the influential Political Agent Major Maxwell accelerated the progress of education in Manipur. In an article written for The Baptist Mission Review in 1932, Mr. Pettigrew wrote,

From the day we heard in Eastern Bengal of that massacre in March, 1891, to the day we were given permission to enter this native state in January, 1894, preparation in language study and for the experiences ahead of us were the order of the day. That permission was given by a British Officer in charge of the State at that time, since the newly appointed Rajah, who succeeded the usurper who was executed, was but a young Hindu lad. For twelve years, until this boy ascended the gaddi and a very conservative Hindu Darbar was inaugurated, both civil and military British Officers rendered the A.B. Mission grateful service and financial help along educational lines under the conditions laid down¹².

The American Baptist Mission continued to render significant contribution to the development of education in the Hill areas. The mission focussed on reading, writing and mathematical knowledge¹³.

As early as 1895, the state, under the British officials, started taking constructive steps towards education. Firstly, an organisational framework was established in the state when an effort was made to standardise and centralise the education system under one department. Secondly, primary education was made free - though not compulsory - allowing students from all classes to attend schools. Breakthrough in the field can also be measured in increased state investment over the years. Under the state budget, expenditure on education in 1893-94 was Rs.813, in 1896-97 it was Rs. 4619 and by 1899 it increased to Rs. 5,565. In 1898-99, there were 11 primary schools, 4 out of which were located in Imphal, five in the villages in the valley and two were in the hills¹⁴. In 1895, William Pettigrew was employed as a state employee, in charge of the development of education in Manipur both in the valley as well as in the hills. As the Inspector of Schools, he was required to travel and tour all schools in Manipur once every three months. By the time he resigned in 1903-04, there were 28 lower primary schools, one upper Primary and one middle school¹⁵. For the progress of education in Manipur, British officials in the Imphal started contacting experts from other parts of British India. Suggestions and advice from other British provinces were also sought. In 1905, the Director of Public Instruction, Mr. Booth, visited all the schools in Imphal and pointed out some defects that needed to be rectified, and these were corrected immediately¹⁶. Unfortunately, the details of those suggestions were not mentioned in the official records. In 1907, when the state administration passed from British management to the Raja, certain changes were made to the rules of administration. Changes included creation of a School Committee which included the Political Agent as the secretary, Maharaja Churachand as the Chairman and two other members of the durbar. With the change in administration in 1907, the department of education and medicine were placed directly under the Maharaja¹⁷. This committee was responsible for the administration of schools in Manipur. By 1907, the schools in Imphal and the valley increased in number leading to a requirement of recruiting more officials. A deputy-inspector was appointed to inspect schools in Imphal and the valley. A Manipuri from Sylhet with a B.A degree was appointed for the position and this broke up any connection of the Mission with educational work in the valley¹⁸. BabuTanu Singh occupied the role of inspector and was responsible for inspecting all schools in the Valley¹⁹. In 1910, an Education Office was established in Imphal to handle the expanding educational development in the State²⁰. The function of the Education Office was to administer schools, supply study materials, regulate educational norms, design curricula, supervise the schools, facilitate the state budget on education; and to send out officials to inspect the schools and provide the needs of the schools.

Though Manipur was under the indirect rule of British, in its educational policy it almost replicated what existed in British India. In British India the educational situation were divided into “Public” and “private” institutions. The former institutions conformed to the standards prescribed by Department of Public Instruction or by the University. Such institutions were frequently inspected by the Department and the pupils were present at the public examinations held by the department or by the university. The ones under private management belonged to those “aided schools”, receiving grants from government or local government or municipality board. There were other institutions that do not fulfil these criteria and they fall under the “private” institutions²¹.

Three grades of institutions operated the Imperial educational policies: Firstly, the primary schools which aimed at teaching reading and writing skills and provide elementary education. Then there was the secondary education, which was divided into English and vernacular schools in which English formed a part of the regular course of study of all students, or at least of all students in the higher classes. These were counted as English schools. If English was not taught or was optional, they were known as vernacular schools. In this category was University education under colleges, where students who passed their matriculation Examination pursued their further studies for a degree. Besides these, there were many other institutions rendering technical knowledge such as technical schools teaching arts and industries, engineering and other branches of applied sciences²².

Elementary Education:

In the beginning of the twentieth century, the number of lower primary school in Manipur was 15 including 1 Middle school out of which 6 were located in Imphal²³. The state budget towards Education in the 1900-01 was Rs. 15,437²⁴. After three decades, the number changed, and in 1930, there were 122 lower primary schools maintained by the state and 40 in the hills and five in Jiribam²⁵. The total expenditure under the education department for that year amounted to Rs.56, 037²⁶. As table 4.1 shows the lower primary schools proliferated during the three decades with students not limited to the urban areas but even from the peripheries of the state.

The lower primary schools aimed at teaching the students basic elementary education consisting of the ability to read and write. The syllabi of the primary school curricula of the earliest period included study of languages like Bengali, and then later Manipur was taught. In 1905, the first Manipuri language text books were introduced, but subsequently, Bengali primers were introduced along with the Manipuri Primers²⁷. The lack of information on the syllabi of these schools makes the analysis of the education system incomplete. However there are some information for later years in biographies of leaders and famous personalities. K. Chaoba Singh, a teacher in Johnstone School in the 1930’s, taught general knowledge, Bengali and Manipuri including Grammar²⁸. Arithmetic was also a part of the Primary school curricula²⁹. Besides these usual subjects, the schools in the valley trained students in physical exercises. Deshikasrat was taught in Low primary schools and gymnastics in Johnstone School and upper primary schools³⁰. Throughout the state, an examination was conducted on the completion of Lower Primary education that determined whether a student should be promoted to upper primary education. Lower primary education was made free of cost by the state to encourage the expansion of education however it was not compulsory. The only time a fee was introduced was in 1914 at 1 Anna in Imphal and 6 pies in the valley. The decreasing attendance in schools soon raised a concern, and the fee policy was revised in 1915-16³¹.

Education soon became popular, and more schools were demanded even in the peripheries. Only within a year between 1903 and 1904, 12 new primary schools were opened all over Manipur³². The sixteen years (1891-1907) periods of British Regency in the State proved to be a boon in the field of education. What was interesting was the change in the attitude of people towards western education. Many villages requested the State for the establishment of schools³³. The growing demand for education not only led to establishment of more Lower Primary schools in Imphal but it also increased the need to have more schools for higher classes. This led to the establishment of the first upper primary school in 1903. Within a decade of the twentieth century, more upper primary schools were set up in the capital. These schools were supplied with students from all over the valley who had cleared the examinations. Initially, the modus operandi of the admission was that the students passing in the 2^nd and 3^rd divisions went to various Upper Primary schools located in Imphal and students with 1st division were admitted to the Johnstone School. This rule remained active until it was withdrawn in 1917 to enroll more students at Johnstone³⁴. To encourage students to pass their lower primary examination and study further, the state provided one time scholarship of Rs.2 to students joining Johnstone³⁵. As on March 1917, the numbers of students in all primary schools were 3512 boys and 37 girls³⁶. Within Imphal, the establishment of upper primary schools accelerated the growing interaction between the urban centre and the villages as many students were coming to Imphal for higher education.

As far as Middle School education was concerned, the Johnstone School and the Bengali School were the only two middle schools in the entire Manipur state till the early twentieth century. Both the schools were located in Imphal, the former was founded in 1885 and the latter in 1903. Though many students would quit education after Upper Primary education because of financial reasons or for employment, some would go ahead for further studies. Mostly they belonged to wealthy families, or they earned scholarships. As Table 4.1 shows, the number of middle schools remained less in comparison with the Primary schools. This denotes that very small percentage of students continued their higher education.

Besides these schools, traditional and religious forms of education were also introduced like Sanskrit Tols and Madrasas. Until 1931, there were 10 madrasas and 3 Tols. All the Sanskrit Tols were located in Imphal. In 1909, the curricula of these tols were reconsidered as the Sanskrit books taught in the tols were too advanced for the students. The darbar resolution on 22^nd September 1909 gave an order to give responsibility for this to the education member and PanditBinduMadhobShastri was put in charge of the new curricula³⁷. The darbar sent students to learn Sanskrit on state scholarship to religious and educational centre like Nawadip (Bengal) and Banaras. The lower primary Sanskrit Examination was conducted every year. In 1916, one Nanda Kishore Sarma and LaipubamNilnaniSarmaBundnapadyu was granted Rs. 5/ as monthly scholarship to go to Benaras for two years and four years respectively. Other names of scholarship holders were Radha Madhab Sastri and Lalit Madhab Chattapadhyaya, brothers studying in Benaras³⁸.

The first Muslim school or Madrasa was established by the Manipur state in Lilong, few kilometres away from Imphal in 1907. The curricula in Madrasas included Urdu, Persian and Arabic³⁹.

Higher Education:

In 1921, the Johnstone School was upgraded to High school level, and until 1930, it remained the only high school in Manipur. In 1932, another high school was established in Imphal called the Manipuri Institution. This school started by the educated youth in the state who felt the need to establish more High Schools to accommodate the increasing number of students. This school received a grant- in- aid from the State which was 50% from the valley budget and 50% from the Hill Budget⁴⁰. This school reserved 50% of its seats for students from the hill areas. It was renamed as the Churachand Institution on 1^st March 1934 and was under the patronage of the Maharaja of Manipur. The Darbar nominated a six- member committee for the management of the school. William Pettigrew commented that the school was born out of the support and effort of “wide waken” educated Manipuris⁴¹. The Darbar sanctioned a generous amount of grant of Rs.1000 from the Valley Budget and Re.1/ per hill student per mensem from the Hill Budget⁴². Hill students would continue their higher studies in this school with hostel facilities. The American Baptist Mission workers were employed for the upkeep of the hostel. These increased the number of hill students in the capital city unlike the older days where most students would go to Kohima, Jorhat etc as Imphal could manage only a limited number of students. The third high school was opened in Uripok in 1932 called “GovindaTumpusthi”. Later it was registered as “Your High School” with the Calcutta University and in later years, it was renamed as Tombisana High school⁴³.

Imphal soon became an educational centre with the inception of formal and western education system. Students from village took shelter in the households of kin in Imphal or travelled daily. Hostel facilities were also made available by many institutions and by private initiative. These hostels were mainly occupied by students from the hill areas staying in Imphal for education. In 1913, U. M Fox, a missionary with the American Baptist Mission, mentioned that 20 boys were living in a hostel established especially for boys from the hills⁴⁴. Even within the valley, village schools were mostly lower primary schools and for further studies in upper primary schools or middle school, students had to come all the way to Imphal.

Collegeand University Education:

Higher studies in colleges and universities within Manipur failed to make any commendable progress in the colonial period. The first college only appeared in 1945 called the Dhanamanjuri College. For higher studies in college and universities, and for vocational studies, students had to depend on institutions outside the state in other cities and towns in British India. In the absence of any college/ university level education in Manipur, students were sent to British Indian territories like Assam, Bengal, Benaras and Eastern Bengal. Colleges in the newly formed province of Eastern Bengal and Assam were some of the favourite educational destinations for the newly educated population of Manipur. Most of these colleges were second grade colleges- Cotton College, Gauhati, Chittagong College, Dacca College, Murarichand College, Sylhet College etc⁴⁵. In the administration report of Assam 1916-17, The White Berry Medical College had an enrolment of 149 students and one among them was a Manipuri, 86 were from Brahmaputra valley, 33 from Surma valley, 1 Gurkha, 1 Miri, 10 Khasis, 3 Lushais, 2 Garos, 11 Bengalis and 1 Naga⁴⁶.

The Manipur State declared various scholarships on the basis of merit and examination results. Students were sent for different courses like engineering, medical, land surveying schools, Bachelor of Arts and Sciences etc. Apart from technical education, they were also sent for their Matriculation Examinations to Shillong, Calcutta etc., as Imphal did not have a centre for Matriculation Examination until 1924.

CONCLUSION:

Literacy and intellectual growth brought about a strong sense of self consciousness and a desire to promote one’s own culture and heritage. The Manipur renaissance of the 1920s and 30’s, was also associated with religious and social reforms. Development of Manipuri literature was made possible only after the recognition of Manipuri as a vernacular by Calcutta University in 1924. On 20^th August, the Registrar of Calcutta University, Mr. J.C Ghosh issued a Notification declaring Manipuri language as one of the vernaculars for matriculation examination⁴⁷. Some of the important leaders, writers and litterateurs of Manipuri Renaissance in the 1930’s were born in the last decades of the nineteenth century and in early twentieth century. Most of them were well versed in Bengali, Sanskrit and English, had often travelled outside the state for educational purposes and had also been exposed to the ethos and aspirations of the growing Indian nationalism in the British territories. The English educated population created a sense of leadership among this group of newly educated people that began to challenge the hegemony of the Manipuri Monarch and the British. The period between 1920 and 1930 was a period of the emergence of modern Manipuri literature in different forms like journalism, historical writing, novels, poetry and drama. Some important names of Manipuri Renaissance writers are Hijam Anganghal (1892-1946), Khwairakpam Chaoba (1896-1950), HijamIrabot (1896-1951), Hawaibam Nabadwipchandra (1897-1946), Ashangbam Minaketan (1906-1995), Arambam Dorendrajit (1907-1944), Dr. Lamadam Kamal Singh (1899-1935) and many others who wrote novel, poems, dramas and short stories.

REFERENCE:

1. R. Brown, , Statistical account of the native States of Manipur and the Hill territory under its rule,(Calcutta: Office of superintendent of government printing,1874),93

2. B.C Allen, Naga Hills and Manipur, (New Delhi: Gian Publication, reprint 1980), 128

3. Dr. Long Jomba, a ‘Western Education in Manipur and Assam’, in a daily Manipuri Newspaper of Manipur, Naharolgithoudang, January 28 (2010): 2.

4. R. Brown, Statistical account of the native state of Manipur and the hill territory under its rule (93)

5. Administrative Report of the Political Agency of Manipur, 1877-78, MSA

6. Administration Report of the Political Agency in Manipur, 1878-79, MSA

7. F&P External A, July 1892 Nos. 240-244, NAI

8. Sir Robert Reid, History of the Frontier areas Bordering on Assam 1883-1941 (New Delhi: Eastern Publishing House,1942, reprinted 1983), 73

9. Letter to Rev DW Duncan dated April 23, 1895, American Baptist Foreign Mission Societies Records 1895-1900, Microfilms NMML

10. Foreign Department, secret E, Jan 1895 pros.24-28, NAI

11. American Baptist Foreign Mission Societies Records 1895-1900, Microfilms NMML

12. Rev. W. Pettigrew, “Manipur State 1891-1932” in The Baptist Missionary Review, Vol. XXXVIII, November, 1932 No. II, accessed http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=manipur.Manipur_and_Religion.Western_Education_and_Christianity on 18/5/2014 at 1.59 am

13. Letter to Mr. Duncan from William Pettigrew dated 28^th 1897, Ukhrul, American Baptist Foreign Mission Societies Records, Microfilms NMML

14. Administration Report of the Political Agency of Manipur 1898-99, (Shillong: Assam Secretariat Press, 1899), 17,

15. Administration Report of the Political Agency of Manipur 1903-04, (Shillong: Assam Secretariat Press,1905),6

16. Administration Report of the Political Agency of Manipur 1904-05( Shillong: Assam Secretariat Press,1906),5

17. J. Shakespear, “Draft rules of Management of the Manipur State” Confidential letter dated 26^th September 1906, MSRL

18. Milton S. Sangma, A History of American Baptist Mission in The North-East India, Vol.2(New Delhi: Mittal Publication, 1992), 235

19. J. Shakespeare, Manipur under British Management 1891-1907 (Shillong: Easter Bengal and Assam Secretariat, 1907), 6

20. Administration Report of Manipur 1909-1910 (Shillong: Assam Secretariat Press,1901) NAI

21. Statement of Moral and material progress and condition of India,1900-01, (London: 1902), 167

22. Ibid, 167

23. Administration Report of Political Agency of Manipur, 1900-01,( Shillong: State Government press,1901), 5

24. Ibid, 5

25. Administration Report of the Manipur state,1929-30 (Imphal: State Printing Press,1930), 26

26. Ibid, Appendix XXII

27. Administration Report of Political Agency of Manipur 1904-05( Shillong: Assam secretariat press), 5

28. R.K Mani Singh, The Makers of Indian Literature: KwairaikpamChaoba Singh, (New Delhi: SahityaAkademi, 2002), 10

29. J. Shakespear, Manipur under British Management,1891-1907, (Shillong: The eastern Bengal and Assam Secretariat printing, 1907), 7

30. Administration Report of the Manipur State,1914-15 (Calcutta: Thacker, Spink,1916), 13-14

31. Ibid, 13-14

32. Administration report of Political Agency of Manipur, 1903-04 (Shillong: Assam Secretariat Press), 6

33. Administration report of political Agency of Manipur 1904-1905(Shillong: Assam Secretariat Press), 6

34. Administration Report of the Manipur state, 1916-1917 (Calcutta: Thacker &Spink, 1917), 14

35. Administration report of the political Agency, Manipur 1898-99, (Assam Secretariat: Shillong, 1899), 12

36. Ibid, 12

37. Darbar proceedings dated 22 September 1909, Darbar Proceedings 1908-1910, MSRL

38. Darbar Proceedings no. 29^th March 1916, Darbar proceedings 1916-1918, MSRL

39. Administration report of Political Agency of Manipur 1907-08 (Shillong: Assam secretariat press,1909)

40. After the Kuki Rebellion of 1917-1919, the administration of Hill and valley was bifurcated and so was the State budget.

41. William Pettigrew, The Baptist Review, Vol. xxxviii, November, 1932 No. II, Manipur state 1891-1932. Source:http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=manipur.Manipur_and_Religion.Western_Education_and_Christianityaccessed 25 April 2014

42. Administration Report of Manipur State 1935-36,( Imphal: State Printing Press), 27

43. Administration report of Manipur State 1935-36 (Imphal: state printing press)

44. UM Fox,

45. Statement exhibition the moral and material progress and condition of India1905-1906, (London: His Majesty stationery office,1907) 164

46. Report on the administration of Assam 1916-17 (Shillong: Assam Secretariat Press, 1921), 42

47. KaramManimohan, HijamIrabot Singh and Political movements in Manipur, (Delhi: B.R Publishing House, 1989), 39

Received on 20.04.2019 Modified on 04.05.2019

Res. J. Humanities and Social Sciences. 2019; 10(2):547-552.

DOI: 10.5958/2321-5828.2019.00090.1