INTRODUCTION:

Foremost amongst the many valuable vestiges of the old world literature of India stand the two famous epics, the “Ramayana” and the “Mahabharata”, which are loved with an persistent love by the Hindus, for they have kept alive, through many a dreary century, the memory of the ancient heroes of the land, whose names are still borne by the patient husbandman and the proud chief.¹ as rightly said by T. Rama Krishna², that “No work in India at the present day possesses the attraction which these epics have for the majority of the people.”

These great poems have special claim to the attention even of foreigners, if considered simply as representative illustrations of the intellect of a most interesting people, their importance being enhances by the fact that they are, to this day, accepted as entirely and literally true by the inhabitants of India.

The epic of Mahabharata has been perhaps the longest epic in the world, has embraced detail histories of wars and adventures.

It interwoven with the narrative of events, legendary romances, great bulk of idealistic, theological, ethical material, political, cosmogony and religious norms including mythology, mysticism, rituals and the conduct of daily life. It is verily a compendium of human intelligence and human experience so much so that it is said that whatever is in the Mahabharata is elsewhere and whatever is not in the Mahabharata is nowhere. ³

This magnificent epic of Mahabharata was there in the mind, heart and soul of the people of this country from the hoary past of India till today. It was well taken as folk songs like ‘Pandavani’ means story of Pandavs (folksongs of Chhattisgarh) which is still in practice, painter painted in rainbow colors; drawing many significant and nostalgic episodes from Mahabharata and sculptor carved monolithic edifices (Ràthas) at Mahabalipuram in the name of Pandvas and Draupdi so many narrative panels were carved related to the events and story of Mahabharata.

Many stories were shared in Buddhism and Jaina as it is. Because painter, singers, sculptor and every section of society find it or it’s some episode close to their heart. For instance the stories of èùya÷çïga was mentioned in Mahabharata (øànti Parvan) taken as èùya÷çïga jàtaka in Buddhism. And it was duly depicted in the art as well.

In Mathura and Bharhut it was depicted in 1^st Century B.C., on the railing of Buddhist Stupa. This story was narrated by èùi Loma÷a to Arjun in Mahabharata. This is a story of an ascetic R÷ya÷çnga who was the son of Vibhàõóaka Kasyapa and a mrigi (deer). R÷ya÷çnga was a great ascetic and had full control over his senses. He was a meritorious sage and did perform a great deal of penance. This sage had a horn on his head. He caused rain in famine hit kingdom of king Lomapàd. Sage R÷ya÷çnga then marries øantà the daughter of Lompàd. One of cave in Bihar at Bodhgaya known as barabar hills is named after the èùi Loma÷a as “èùi Loma÷a cave” who told this story to Arjun in Mahabharata. The three cave inscriptions at Baraber hills in the Gaya District, was known as “Gorath-Giri” in the Mahabharata.⁴

The Jataka no. 276 mentions one Dhananjaya as a king of “Indapatta” City, in the Kuru Kingdom.⁵

èùi Loma÷a cave, Barabar Hills, Bodhgaya Bihar

Likewise another tale of the hawk, the pigeon and the king øibi is found in Vana Parva and Anusasan Parva and in Buddhist jàtaka. In this tale the gods differed about the righteousness of the king øibi and decided to visit the earth and find out the truth; Agni became a pigeon and Indra became a hawk. In order to save pigeon king øibi was willing to give his body to eat to hawk.⁶

Sabhà of various Gods:

Sabhà Parva of Mahabharata mentions about the Indra sabhà, Yama Sabhà, Varuna Sabhà, Kubera Sabhà and Brahma Sabhà. The Indra Sabhà was erected by Indra himself by performing various glorious deeds. The Sabhà, therefore, had the splendor of the sun and was one hundred yojanas in length and about half that distance in width. It was situated in sky and could be moved anywhere at will.

In early Buddhist art Indra Sabhà along with Yama, Varun, Kuber and Brahma Sabhà (described in Sabhà Parva in Mahabharata) very beautifully depicted in Sanchi Stupa no. III and I. In one place of Sanchi heaven has also been depicted where in Indra is shown enjoying dance performed by nymphs and enjoying drinks. (picture) In Mahabharata it is described that Indra Sabhà and Yama Sabhà was one hundred yojanas in length. It had the splendor of the sun. It was neither cool nor hot and could take away any form at will. It was very pleasant. No sorrow, old age, hunger and thirst, unpleasant things, meanness and fatigue could enter there. All desires of men and of gods could be fulfilled there.⁷

One of the seven heaven depicted in one of the pillar at Sanchi Stupa No.1

Inscriptions related to Mahabharata found in various parts of Ancient India:

In Mahabharata Vàsudeva Kçùõa was known for being a great diplomat, Balaràm as a great gadà fighter, Yudhiùñhira, the eldest son of Paõdu as a man of truth and piety; Bhãma, the second, was a stalwart fighter; Arjun, the third son, was famous for being a great archer. These all legendary heroes were being compared with the great kings and warriors of India time to time many inscriptions tell us about it. After a certain time of the Mahabharata war, Vàsudeva Kçùõa was well accepted as incarnation of Viùõu and Balaràma as incarnation of the cosmic serpent øeùa, also known as Ananta.

Early inscription related to Mahabharata quotes Kçùõa and Balaràma Bhakti, erection of Bhagvat shrine or any other memorial.

Inscription No. 1. (Ghosuïói inscription)3^rd-2^nd C.B.C.

The important epigraphically record comes from Ghosuïói inscription of Pàrà÷arãputra Gàjàyana It was found near Nagari also known as ancient site of Màdhyamika in district of Chittorgarh, Rajasthan.⁸

It records the erection of stone enclosure for worship of Bhàgavata Saïkarùaõa and Vàsudeva, known as Nàràyaõa Vàñikà.

· “Kàrito aya§ ràj¤à bhàga(va) (te) na Gàjayànena Pàrà ÷arãputreõ sa-

· Rvatàtena a÷vamedha-ya jinà Bhagava(d) bhyàm Saïkarùaõa Vàsudevàbhya§

· Anihatabhya§ sarve÷vara bhya§ påja ÷ila Prakaro Narayana vataka.”

It has firmly established that as early as 4^th-3^rd century B.C., a religious system with Vasudeva as its central figure came in to existence.

This inscription proves that the Bhagvata cult was becoming popular during the time of øuïgas. Scholars like B.N. Puri holds that it is engraved in Brahmi characters of the 2^nd century B.C.⁹ The sculpture of Balarama and Kçùõa became a historical and divine figure at that point of time and were established and worshiped as unconquered (Anihata) and supreme lords (Sarve÷vara). Coomaraswamy is inclined to date it in the third or even 4^th century B.C.

Inscription No. 2-Inscription on Garuóa Pillar Basenagar:

Another example of early inscriptions is Garuóa column inscription at Besanagar, there still stands the Garuóa pillar which was erected by Heliodorus, the ambassador of Antialcidas in honour of Vasudeva in early second century B.C. Heliodorus visited the øuïga ruler Bhagbhadra and is identified as the ninth imperial of øuïga family. Translation of inscription is as follows.

“This Garuda-standard of Vāsudeva, the God of Gods was erected here by the devotee Heliodoros, the son of Dion, a man of Taxila, sent by the Great Yona King Antialkidas, as ambassador to King Kasiputra Bhagabhadra, the Savior son of the princess from Varanasi, in the fourteenth year of his reign. This inscription shows that Bhagavat Bhakti was also being embraced by foreigners.

Garuóa PillarInscription, Basenagar:

Inscription No. 3 from Mathura (Shrine of Vasudeva or Balarama (2^nd Century B.C.)

In another contemporary inscription from Mathura mentions that a shrine (Mahasthan of Bhag (avato) va(sudevasya) related to the period 1^st century B.C.¹⁰

N.P. Joshi is of the view that it should as Bhagavato Baladevasya. In support to this it can be put that many Balarama images have been found dated as early as 2^nd century B.C. Early image of Balarama from Mathura goes back to about the 2^nd century B.C. In Vaiùõava Puraõa and Mahabharata especially its final chapter Harivan÷ha, Balarama is mentioned along with Kçùõa and description of his life and work also given in these texts. Balarama was master of his two celestial weapons, the plough and pestle. He was also fond of bright colors. Blue cloths, a single earring and the use of vanamala were his special characteristics. His standard was a palm (tala) and hence, he was also known as taladhwaja talaketu and talaïka. There, such figures were found from Mathura, Varanasi and Gwalior respectively. Of the earliest figures attributed to the øuïga age, from Mathura includes a two-armed Balarama from Janasuti village. This image has snake canopies on their heads and they carry plough and Mace or pestle.

Independent statue of Balarama, the elder brother of Kçùõa, who is taken to be the eight incarnation of Vishnu his early images traced back to the 2^nd century B.C. created by the Mathura sculptors. Balarama is associated with wrestling, fighting with clubs and agriculture. He is also a serpent deity. Balarama, Baladeva, Saïkarùaõa, Balabhadra are some other popular names of Balarama, who commanded respect in the Brahmanical as well and Jain pantheon. In early images of Mathura he is shown as a drinker holding goblet in one hand. The image of Balarama from the village Janasuti in Mathura district can be identified as Balarama as the snake hood arranged in a row above his head, the musala in his right hand and hala in his left hand. According to V.S. Agrawala, “This image of Balarama was considered the earliest known sculptural representation of a Brahmanical deity. The image is stiff, frontal and more akin to yakùa image^{. 11}

Early image of Balarama from Mathura

Inscription No. 4 found at village mora well from Mathura (1^st Century B.C.):

At Mathura, another inscription comes from the village of Mora incised on a large stone slab which mentions Rajula as Mahakùatrapa and his sons name as Swamã. The epigraph refers to a stone shrine (÷aila –devagçha) built during the time of Mahakùatrapa øoóaùa and containing the image of Bhagvata Vçùõi Pa¤chavãras. Here it is imperative to note that Vçùõi, a Kshatriya of the Yadu race, whose descendants came to be known as the Vçùõi Kçùõa also belonged to the Vçùõi clan. The Vçùõis were a well- known people of ancient India from the later vedic period onwards. They have been mentioned by Paõini and Kauñilya’s Artha÷astra^.12

These were Vasudeva, Saïkarùaõa, Pradumna (son of Vasudeva), Anirudha (grandson of Vasudeva) and Samba (son of Vasudeva). This view is supported by Aïgavijja a Jain work of the Kuùaõa period. In this text the name of Pa¤chavãras as Kõõho, Ramo, Sambo, Pajjaõõo and Pussa (Purusha another name of Aniruddh) are mentioned. We all know that all are the heroes of Mahabharata.

Inscription No. 5 Nasik Cave Inscription of Vasiùñhã Putra Pulmavi dated 149 A.D:

The earliest datable reference to the Mahabharata heroes is to be met with in the Nasik inscription of the 19^th year of the reign of the Satavahana king Vasiùñhã Putra Pulmavi describing the achievements of his illustrious father Gautamãputra Satakarõi who ruled towards the close of the first century A.D. It compares Gautamãputra of Rama (Balarama) Ke÷ava, Arjun and Bhãmasena in valor. ¹³

Inscription No. 6. South-East Asian Sanskrit inscription from the district town of Champassak in laos assignable to the second half of the 5^th century A.D.

This undated 64 line inscription equally distributed on four sides of a pillar is written in south Indian Brahmã characters paleographically assignable to the second half of the 5^th century A.D. It refers to the reign of Maharajadhiraja Dˆvanãka who, as told in the inscription, was brought there by the God Liïgaparvata from a distant land. The court poet, who composed this inscription, describes his master as, righteous as Yudhiùñhira, like Arjun in vanquishing the coterie of the enemies. It proves that this epic had been carried to South- East Asia by the Asian Migrants. King Dˆvanãka established a holy centre in his kingdom called Kurukshetra.¹⁴

Inscription No. 7. Aihoee stone inscription of Chalukya king Pulake÷in II king Poleke÷i II near Hungund Taluk, Bijapur District, Karnataka.

The inscription is dated usual øaka era given as 556 (556 A. D). This inscription has been written in the praise of Pulake÷in II. He succeeded in winning over Govind, âppayika, Vanavasã, Ganïga and âlåpa, Maurya, Lañas, Malavas and Gårjaras. He acquired the sovereignty of three Maharashtrakas. He made friendship with Cholas, Keralas and Pandyas, After the Digvijaya, Pulake÷in returned to Vatapinagarã his capital. Further very important information regarding the Mahabharata war is mentioned in this inscription. It says, “3735 years having elapsed since the Bharata war in the Kali age, and 556 years of the øaka kings having also elapsed” (ie. In 634-35A.D.). This inscription gives us a clear date of Mahabharata War.¹⁵

Inscription No. 8 Inscription related to Gupta Period:

Inscriptions which are dated to Gupta period, mentions quotes from Mahabharata are as follows:

1. Karitalai Copper plate inscription of the Maharaja Jayanatha (Gupta year 174).

2. Khoh Copper plate inscription of the Maharaja Jayanatha (Gupta year 177)

3. Khoh Copper plate inscription of the Maharaja Sarvanatha (Gupta year 193)

4. Khoh Copperplate inscription of the Maharaja Sarvanatha (Gupta year 197)

5. Khoh Copper plate inscription of the Maharaja Sarvanatha (Gupta year 214), this inscription mentions a grant of land which was given by the king for the purpose of a temple of the Goddess Pishtapurika Devi at the town of Manapur. In one of the inscription of the Maharaja Sarvanatha issued in A.D. 534, the Mahabharata is referred to as the øata-sahasrã-sa§ahita. It shows that even in the first half of the 6^th century AD the epic had come to have 100,000 verses.

While making grant of lands a above mentioned every inscription includes a passage from Mahabharata which is as follows “it has been said in the Mahabharata, by the venerable Vyasa, the arranger of the Vedas,- O Yudhiùñhira, best of the kings, “The giver of the land enjoys happiness in heaven for sixty thousand years; (but) the confiscator (of a grant), and he who assents (to an act of confiscation), shall dwell for the same number of years in hell. He who confiscated land, rich in all (kinds of grains, (that has been granted), he becomes a worm in the ordure of a dog, and sinks (into hell) together with (his) ancestors.” ¹⁶. Another Gupta Inscription Known as Bhitary stone pillar inscription of Skandagupta was found in Bhitari village near Ghazipur in U.P., Skandagupta compares himself and her mother with Kçùna and her mother Devkã. The red sandstone column on which the inscription is stands just outside the village on the southern side. It records the installation of an image of the God Vishnu, it is written in praise of Skandgupta. In 13^th line of inscription it is mentioned that “who, when his father had attained the skies, conquered (his) enemies by the strength of his arm, and established again the ruined fortune of (his) lineage; and then the victory has been achieved betook himself to his mother, whose eyes were full of tears from Joy, just as Kçùna, when he had slain (his) enemies, betook himself to (his mother) Devkã”.

3. Jabalpur Plate of Maharaja Hastin (Gupta year 170) was found in a village near Satna M.P. while giving grant of land, in the 19^th to 22^th line it is quoted that in “Mahabharata it is mentioned that it is a great donation to give grant of land”.

Inscription No. 9 Nidhanpur Plate:

Nidhanpur Copper Plate of Bhaskaravarman, a contemporary of Harùvardhan of Kanauja inscribed in 590 A.D. while recording the genealogy mentions a king Bhagdatta who fought in battle with Arjun. According to Mahabharata Bhagdatta the king of Pragjyotiùa (Assam) was an ally of the Kauravas and killed in the battle-field.¹⁷

Inscription No. 9 Sultanpur Copper plate inscription:

This can be dated 5^th century A.D. inscription belongs to the Gupta emperor Kumargupta. It relates to the grant of land. ¹⁸

This inscription from Bengal asserts that the imprecatory verses quoted therein were composed by Bhagavan Vyasa for the Mahabharata. It reads, “ukta§ cha Mahabharate bhagavata Vyasena.

Inscription No. 10 Supia pillar inscription of A.D. 460-61:

In this inscription Gupta emperor Skandagupta is compared with Yudhiùñhira for his truthfulness, good conduct and humility.¹⁹

Inscription No. 11. Inscription of Ikshvaku king dated 3-4^th century A.D.

This inscription is from Nagarjunakonda related to Ikshvaku king Ehavala Chantamåla is introduced as an equal to many epic heroes, including Yudhiùñhira. It reads “Sagara Dilãp âmbarãsha Yudhisñhira tulya dharma vijyasya”²⁰

Inscription No. 12

From Sri Rangapatam Taluq (modern Sri-Rangapatana) an inscription of donation made by Shri Krishna Rajas dated 1724A.D. written by poet Tirumaleyacharya mentions both the epic in the end of inscription; it mentions that the writer of this copper plate is a constant reader of the Ramayana and Mahabharata.²¹

Inscription No. 13 Sarban inscription of Khatal Paital found in Raisina Delhi dated 1326 A.D.:

In the year 1326 A.D. an inscription written in Sanskrit was found in Delhi. It was written during the digging of a well. It records that, “Who caused to made this well in the village Sarban which comes under Indraprastha (Indraprsth pratigaõa) shell live long with his kin’s. First time in the medieval India during the reign of Sultanate period Inderprasth as a tehsil was mentioned in the inscription. This inscription was engraved on a black stone. The inscription reads as

“Indraprastha pratigaõe gramˆ sakhale atratu

chira§ tisñhatu kåpoaya§ kark÷ch sabandhava.”²²

Braj Kishore Chandiwala in his book writes that Indraprastha was abundant for about one thousand and eight hundred years and credit goes to Rajput kings who again took initiative to re-establish this historical city”²³

Inscription No. 15 Palam inscription:

Delhi is believed to have been founded by the Tomars. It was named Dhilli or Dhillika. The name Dhillika is found recorded in the earliest inscription of 1170 from Bijolia, Udaipur. The Palam Baoli inscription of 1276 AD calls the town Dhilli in the region Hariyanaka²⁵.

Inscription No. 16:

One inscription was found in Mysore District of year 1678. It is related to the grant given by Chikka-Deva Raja –Vodeyar. It bring to notice that a Brahman to whom Deva Raja Vodeyar, on hearing him recite the Mahabharata, when he came to the description of the coronation of Yudhisthira, had presented two villages.(Some of the grants made by kings of the Mysore family subordinate to the Vijay Nagara sovereigns. Mysore Raja made independently in their own name”. It was found on a stone west of the door of the Ramanujacharya shrine in Narayana Swami temple in Srirangapatana.²⁶

There are numerous inscriptions linked to Mahabharata. Here few inscriptions have been discussed. These inscriptions show that the Mahabharata characters were often exploited by later rulers to add an aura of splendor and sanctity to their deeds. It is not an exaggeration to state that the people of India of the present day cherish in their heart the story of Mahabharata. The Hindu scarcely lives, man or woman, high or low, educated or ignorant, whose earliest recollections do not cling round the story and the characters of the great epic. The people from all corner of India cherish with equal ardor the story of the righteous war. According to Romesh Dutta an 19^th century scholar from University College, London, “No single work except the Bible has such influence in affording moral instruction in Christian lands as the Mahabharata and the Ramayana in India”.²⁷ It reflects the ancient life of India, will always remain an invaluable treasury. As a mine of information the Mahabharata is inexhaustible, and will for long time remain unexhausted.

REFERENCES:

1. Proff. Max Muler’s Hibbert Lectures, 1878, p.50.

2. Rama Krishna T.^,B.A “Life in an Indian Village”;. T. Fisher Unwin, 1891

3. âdã p.62-63.

4. Smith V.A, “Early History of India” 1957 Oxford Press.

5. Cowell E. B., ed. “The Jataka or stories of Buddhas previous births” p. no. 251, London, 1957 Published for the Pali text society.)

6. Patil N.B., The Folklore In The Mahabharata, Ajanta Publication 1983, pno.196-198

7. ibid pno.196-198

8. Agrawal. V.S., “Pracina Madhyamika Ki Narayan Vatik”, Seth Kanhaiyalal Poddar Abhnandan Granth, Mathura P. 899-902.

9. Sinha, Binod Chandra, History of the øuïga Dynasty, Bhartiya Publishing House, 1977, Delhi, p. 36

10. GMM, No. 367; Janert, K.L.,(ed.) Mathura Inscriptions by H. Luders, Gottingen, 961, p 155

11. GMM, no. 215.

12. Devendra Handa, (1985), studies in Indian coins and Seals, Delhi p.42.

13. D.C. Sirkar, Selected inscriptions bearing on Indian History and Civilization, I, second revised edn., Calcutta,1965, pp.204-5 ).

14. The âranyakaparvan, BORI edn., 1942pt. 1Tãrthayataparvan. P.285 V. 173, 174,175.)

15. D. C. Sircar., Selected Inscriptions bearing on Indian History and Civilization, vol. II, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi P. 1983, 443

16. John Faithfull Fleet C.I. E., Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol III Inscriptions of the early Gupta Kings and their successors by, Calcutta 1888, The superintendent of Government Printing , India

17. Katre S.M. & P. K. Goda ed. A Volume of studies in Indology, Five Thousand Years ago- The Mahabharata War by P.V. Kane, Oriental Book Agency 1941

18. Epigraphia Indica, Vol.31, 1955-56 p. 65.

19. (CII,III,1981, No. 32, p.318)

20. (EI, XXXIV,p.19)

21. Epigraphia Carnataka Vol III , Inscriptions in the Mysore District part1 published by Govt. of India by B. Lewis Rice CIE, Director of Archaeological research Mysore 1894

22. Singh. Shusil, Prachin Punchab ke abhilekhon ka adhyayan , 2003, New Bhartiya Book Corporation, Delhi.

23. Chandiwala, Braja Kishore, “Delhi ki khoj, Published by Information and Broadcast Ministry, 1965.p27.

24. Singh. Shusil, Prachin Punchab ke abhilekhon ka adhyayan , 2003, New Bhartiya Book Corporation, Delhi.

25. Journal of Asiatic Society Bangal, XLIII, Pt. I, p.108, PL.x,1.

26. Epigraphia Carnataka-Vol.III, Inscriptions in the Mysore District (part 1)by Lewis Rice C. I. E. 1894 p. no. 29

27. Romesh C. Dutta, The Great Epics of Ancient India, Ess Ess Publication, Delhi1899 pno.381

Received on 19.08.2019 Modified on 08.09.2019

Res. J. Humanities and Social Sciences. 2019; 10(4): 1113-1119.

DOI: 10.5958/2321-5828.2019.00183.9