INTRODUCTION:

Construction of dams has been in the history of mankind since ancient time. Traditionally, in India dams are constructed in order to provide irrigation facilities for agricultural purposes through canals and as well as for drinking water. It was only during the colonial periods that the modern concepts of dams emerging for the purposes of providing electricity through the existing water potential. Northeastern states of India being rugged in its topography provide tremendous hydropower potential from large numbers of perennial rivers.

In the Annual Report of Government of Manipur (2011-2012) Thoubal river, had its origin in the western hill slopes of Shiroi hills and Hoomi in the Ukhrul district. Local name for the river is Yangwui kong. This river flows through the Thoubal district before joining the Imphal river at Irong Ichil. Being the longest and biggest river in the district had given opportunity for the Government of Manipur’s Irrigation and

Flood Control Department (IFCD) to undertake developmental project with assistance from the central government in construction of the dam that began in 1989 (although it was first proposed in the early part of 1970’s). The river is non-navigable due to rugged topography of the catchment area that result in strong current particularly during the rainy season and very thin during winter. However, the river serves useful for fishing and irrigation¹.

Agriculture is the most important source of livelihood for the people of the district. More than 70% of the total population of the district is directly or indirectly depended on agricultural activities. Jhum cultivation is practiced in the southern and eastern parts of Ukhrul district ibid.

Reports by Environmental Justice Atlas reveals that Mapithel dam is a mega dam at Phayang/Maphou built across the Thoubal river in Mapithel area in Phungyar subdivision of Ukhrul district of Manipur which is 66 meter-high and 1034 meter long. It has a gross storing capacity of 176.38 cusecs. This project is targeted to irrigate 21,000 hectares of cultivable land besides giving 10 million gallons of drinking water every day and supply 7.5 MW of power. It is one of the biggest dams in the North-east India with the catchment area of about 1,180 hectares².

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM:

This study try to assess the implication of dam construction in Thoubal river area particularly with regard to Thoyee village which is located in the upstream. How much has the livelihood of Thoyee village been affected due to the construction of Mapithel dam? Has the local people been able to adapt to the new environment?

OBJECTIVE:

The main objectives of the study is to examine the livelihood of people living in the upstream affected Thoyee village due to Mapithel dam construction.

STUDY AREA:

Ukhrul district located in the Northeastern corner of Manipur shares an international boundary with Myanmar in the east, Chandel district in the South, Imphal East and Senapati districts in the west and Nagaland state in the North has an area of 4,544 sq.km at an altitude of 913 meters to 3114 meters above mean sea level. It is bounded by North latitude 24°29’ N to 25° 41’N and East longitudes 94°04’ E to 94° 47’E ³. Thoyee is a village in Ukhrul district, Manipur, North east of India located at a coordinates of 24.929°N Latitude and 94.162°E Longitude. About 26 Km from Imphal and about 54 Km from Ukhrul town.

Data and Method:

Data has been collected primarily in the form of questionnaire targeted at sixty eight households, using the random sampling method at an interval of two houses. The questions were personally administered to the respondent at the field. The collected data has been tabulated and represented in the form of diagrams and maps for analysis.

Secondary has been collected from books, articles (published and unpublished), governmental reports that have been duly referred. These data has been collected in such a way that includes information both before and after the construction of dam and comparison was made regarding the physical, socio-economic condition of the people.

Fig. 1: Satellite imagery of Mapithel dam and Thoyee village (Study area)

Fig. 2: Satellite image showing Thoyee village

Fig. 3: Satellite image showing Mapithel dam

Data and Method:

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

Socio-economic profile:

The district is the home of the Tangkhuls. The total population of the district as per 2011 census is 183,998. The district with its headquarters at Ukhrul has been divided into 5 blocks; Chingai sub-division-32 villages, Kamjong sub-division-57 villages, Kasom Khullen sub-division-27 villages, Phungyar sub-division-41 villages, Ukhrul sub-division- 71 villages. The total built up area is 6569.1 hectare and the cropland area is 9675.02 hectare with the forest cover 288330.98 hectare and the land with/without scrub area amounts to 148347.82 hectare⁴.

Thoyee village falls under Phungyar sub-division. Primary activities predominates the economy of the village with more than half the population engaged in Agriculture and presence of fertile plains along the river side (Thoubal river) serves favorable for wet paddy cultivation with rice as the main food crop. On the more hilly topography they practice terrace farming and shifting cultivation. The dependence on forest products especially on trees can be acknowledged by the used of wood as a fuel for cooking by households as a whole. Also the presence of rich flora allows fauna to breed and people practice hunting and foraging mostly for self consumption with few sold within the village buyers. The forest products, food crops and vegetables are marketed through the Yaingangpokpi bazaar which is about 5 kms away from the village situated along the Imphal- Ukhrul road. Here the local population from the nearby vicinity or villages transact their business and sell away their products.

The society is patriarchal, but the women are not discriminated against. They play a significant role in agriculture and animal husbandry, besides being actively involved in weaving.

Demographic profile:

There are about 335 households in Thoyee village with the total population of about 2000, comprising 1050 males and 950 females as according to 2016 census. Out of the total, 68 households are surveyed with 415 populations comprising of 219 males and 196 females. The surveyed populations are thus classified under the different age groups in the table given below:

Table 1: Demographic profile of the study area

Age-cohort	Male	Female	Persons
0-5	10	11	21
10-Jun	19	18	37
15-Nov	23	27	50
16-20	36	22	58
21-25	25	21	46
26-30	18	19	37
31-35	15	11	26
36-40	12	16	28
41-45	14	13	27
46-50	9	9	18
51-55	6	8	14
56-60	15	6	21
61-65	2	5	7
66-70	6	3	9
71-75	3	5	8
75+	6	2	8
Total	219	196	415

Source: Field work, 2017

Table 1 reveals the age-sex composition of the sampled population in which there is more of adult population (66.3%) that is between 16-60 years of age, than the young age population (26%) from 0-15 years. The old age population which is above 60 years totals to (7.7%). Data signifies that there is more of supporting population (66.3%) than the dependent population (33.7%) whereby, there is fairly good enough chance to develop economically.

However, the occupational structure is the true index of the nature of activities practiced in an area. The societies have often been classified into primary, secondary and tertiary on the basis of occupational composition. For instance, societies with less than 15 percent of workers in tertiary activities have been called as primary civilizations and those having more than 40 percent of workers in tertiary services as tertiary civilizations. The intermediary societies with 15 to 40 percent of workers in tertiary activities have been called as secondary civilizations.

There witness a dramatic change in the occupation of the study area after the construction of the dam, shifting immensely from primary occupation to tertiary occupation and a great reduction in the working population. Before the dam construction the number of working population amounts to 156 persons which reduced to 140 persons out of the surveyed 415 persons following the submergence of agricultural lands due to dam construction. This shows that there is a reduction in the population of the workforce of the study area. The different kinds of occupations at which the surveyed population are employed are categorized as primary, secondary and tertiary and are clearly shown in the table given below (table 2).

Table 2: Occupational Structure Before and after dam construction

Types of occupation		Before	In %	After	In %
Primary occupation	Farmers	81	51.9	35	25
	Fisherman	0	0	4	2.8
	Animal husbandry	2	1.3	8	5.7
	Sand sieving	26	16.7	0	0
Secondary occupation	Weaving	2	1.3	4	2.8
	Govt. service	5	3.2	4	2.8
	Defense service	5	3.2	7	5
	Drivers	3	1.9	5	3.5
	Business	8	5.1	16	11.5
	Labourers	4	2.6	20	14.4
	Vegetable vendor	2	1.3	10	7.1
Tertiary Occupation	Nurse	0	0	2	1.4
	Carpentry	1	0.6	1	0.8
	Private firms	9	5.8	14	10
	Postman	1	0.6	1	0.8
	Retired	1	0.6	3	2.1
	Handicraft	2	1.3	1	0.8
	Horticulture	2	1.3	2	1.4
	Private teacher	2	1.3	3	2.1
Total employed		156	100	140	100

Source: Field work, 2017

There has been significant proportion of population (69.9%) who were engaged in primary activities which include agriculture, including fishing, animal husbandry and sand sieving. Sand sieving was an important source of income generating occupation for those families who do not own any agriculture land in this society which are primary civilizations. Tertiary activities (28.8%) which takes into consideration the population employed under Government services as well as non- Governmental private jobs and companies as well as various service providing jobs and labourers. A very little amount of working population employed under secondary occupation (1.3%) that is weaving, which are only practiced by the women folks (Figure 4).

However, with the construction of dam the working population came down from 156 persons to 140 persons out of 415 sample populations. Thus, there has been a reduction in the amount of workforce. As such there was also huge shuffle between the percentage of primary and tertiary occupation after the dam construction. With the submergence of agricultural lands and stopping of sand sieving activities that was carried on by the river banks there was change in the occupation of many households from primary activities to tertiary activities mostly wage earner and labourers. Thus, there were (63.7%) of working population under tertiary activities, followed by primary activities (33.5%) and secondary activities (2.8%) which can be termed as Secondary civilizations.

1 Before

2 After

Source: Field work, 2017

Fig.4: Percentage of workers by sector before and after dam construction (in percentage)

As such there was immense reduction in the primary activities and various households rely on service sectors for sustenance thereby witnessing many of the youths entering working force and reported to be employed mostly in firms and private sectors outside the State. Although many of the youths enters the working population the working population percentage is compared to be lower after the dam construction than before as the working population are compensated with the larger number of elderly working population who were previously engaged in primary activities mainly agriculture stayed away from their previously engaged occupation.

On making a comparative analysis between before and after the dam construction scenario with regard to household income, table 3 clearly show that there is an overall drop in the income of many households. Prior to the dam construction there were only (2.9%) of the surveyed households earning less than Rs.10,000 on a monthly basis which subsequently increased to (35.3%). Also families earning above Rs.30,000 which accounts to (36.8%) consequently reduced to (8.8%). Thus, there witness a constant drop in the monthly income of many households which can be cited due to loss of income that once was received from selling their agricultural commodities and other primary activities mainly sand sieving that was practiced widely. The income remain more or less alike in both the situation for those very few families which solely depended on Tertiary activities especially Government services, although those families too incurs losses of owned agricultural and forest lands.

The society being agrarian in nature, loss of agricultural land had major impact on their income and livelihood. There was a great transformation in the occupation of the employed population with more males from cultivators to wage earners and females too started to practice shifting cultivation and animal husbandry as an alternative source of income. From the meager income each household receive their spending also increases as they now have to buy food grains or rice for family consumption which was once produced by the household members prior to the submergence of their paddy field and every consumable goods are now attained only with the help of money. The natural resources and herbs that they use to collect are now just a mere memories and stories for the villages.

Fig. 6: Means of livelihood before and after displacement

Income therefore determines the standard of living and all families employ themselves in different ways in their spare time. As shown in Fig.3.3 wet paddy is the main source of livelihood before displacement followed by sand sieving which was later replaced by vegetables and fruits farming, animal rearing, Jhum, dry paddy cultivation and to some extend non-primary activities such as wage earner, small business and driving.

Land owner status:

Out of the 68 sample households surveyed 55 households owned land in the form of agriculture and forest land accounting to about 164 acres of land, where 9 households are tenants and leased in about 24 acres of land and 4 households are landless. The landless populations are made up of the recent immigrants from other villages. They are usually labourers who are given wages per day or a week or even a month on a contract basis. The tenant on the other hand rent agriculture land where the rent is fixed which may be half of the total production or less. Therefore, it can be assumed that the people mostly cultivated land or rent it which reveals that they are engaged with agriculture works most part of the year which might led to self sufficient in food grains before the deprival.

Source: Field work, 2017

Fig. 7: Land tenure

Types of cultivation:

While taking into account the four main types of cultivation or primary activities practiced in the village, it is shown that wet paddy cultivation was practiced to a great extend before the submergence of agricultural land (91.8%) but after it accounts for (0%). Dry paddy cultivation started only as a replacement to wet paddy cultivation (11.3%). Jhum cultivation which was practiced only by small proportion of households (1.6%) increased to (16.9%) where people started to cut down trees of the hilly tracts for the plantation of sweet potatoes, chilly, maize, brinjal, potato, pumpkin, gourd etc. which are sold in the Yaingangpokpi bazaar and in Imphal bazaar by the business middlemen’s. Not much attention was given to the farming of fruits and rearing of animals before the dam construction (6.6%) only while looking for an alternate source of livelihood many of the household started to take interest, accounting to (71.7%) which include fruits farming like pineapple, groundnuts, banana and rearing of pigs (figure 6).

Fig.8: Type of cultivation before and after submergence of agricultural land

Source: Field work, 2017

Types of amenities enjoyed by the oustees:

Human beings basic needs are food, clothing and shelter. If any of it is scarce or missing out then there would be uncomfortable life or low quality of life. Comparing the amenities or facilities enjoyed by the ousted, we can find that there are changes in the quality and livelihood of the people. Employment opportunities, accessibility to forest products such as firewood, herbs and medicinal plants were worse than before. While some amenities are of the same as before such as type of house and electricity as there is no displacement of the village. Slight changes were observed with regard to the availability of drinking water as the main pipeline that supplies fresh water to the whole village now lies submerged under the swallowing giant water. A long lifespan for the pipeline before it gets rusted under water is hold on to by the villagers at present as it is the only source of drinking water, which is obtained from Marou stream at about 6.5 kms away from the village. Even with regard to recreation facilities there witness a drastic change as the soft flowing streams now gives a gigantic picture, the once picnic friendly environment, suitable for fishing and collecting consumable goods from the stream is now at a risky situation not very suitable for the children to picnic around without the care of parents and elders.

As shown in figure 7, type of house and electricity remains the same. The accessibility to forest product and employment are seen to be worst affected with drinking water remaining the same for the larger population and is worst for 1/4^th of the surveyed population. The recreation facilities are seen to have worsened, however some positivist villagers have made chances of betterment by building big boats and investing on opening facilities for recreation, which can attract tourist and open job opportunities for shops, restaurants, etc. However, such plans are still unmet.

Fig. 9: Quality of amenities after dam construction

Source: Field work, 2017

Table 4: Problems faced after dam construction

	Percentage
Firewood	21
Drinking water	1
Employment	20.6
Food scarcity	55.4
Others (infertile soil, harsh topography etc )	2

Source: Field work, 2017

There has been a lot of hardship faced regarding the livelihood of the people. Table 4 reveals that people faced a lot of problem like scarcity of firewood (21%), drinking water (1%), employment (20.6%), food scarcity (55.4%) and infertile soil and harsh topography (2%). The people lost their agricultural land due to which there arise problem of food scarcity to great extend and unemployment problem. The lost of forest land result in scarcity of firewood which is the main commodity each household in the village used for cooking purposes. Apart from different changes due to dam construction, cultural changes cannot be ignored. As observed in table 5, due to loss of agriculture land a very high proportion of population remain jobless and the working force also disappear (39.7%) and many became a wage earner or labourers searching for jobs. The young and energetic ones quit their studies and goes to town and even outside the State to find jobs for supporting the family. Food habits also changes (25%) as the population no longer consume their local food grains which was fertilizer free, instead are replaced by the poor quality food grain available in the market. Clearing of forest (14.7%) for jhuming and forest product is high as it is the alternative way to support their livelihood which was predominantly primary in nature. As the work force disappears there witness an increase in the incidence of social evils like drunkenness and gambling (13.2%) which might be due to prolong stress and forced idleness. Economic hardship may be one of the reasons behind the problems of domestic violence (7.4%).

Table 5: Cultural changes after displacement

	Percentage
Clearing of forest	14.7
More domestic violence	7.4
Different food habits	25
Drunken/Drugs addiction	13.2
Working force disappear	39.7

Source: Field work, 2017

Benefits from the dam:

As for the oustees, dam gives nothing much to them, in fact it debarred the opportunity they enjoyed. As it can be noticed from table 6, the village does not receive any benefit for drinking water and irrigation from the dam. As with the abundance of water available the agriculture land which was suppose to require water for irrigation are already submerged under water. Thus, no benefits from the dam accounts to 60.3%, with a little benefit of about 33.8% for fishing and 5.9% for recreational purposes.

It is now well-established that, by nature, dam construction is a disruptive and painful process. Economically and culturally it create a high risk of chronic improvement that typically occur along one or several of the following dimensions; landlessness, joblessness, homelessness, marginalization, food insecurity etc.

Table 6: Benefits from the dam

	Percentage
Drinking water	-
Fish	33.8
Recreation	5.9
Irrigation	-
None	60.3

Source: Field work, 2017

Deforestation and depletion of wild life:

In this study it is estimated that about 176 acres and 3 hectares of agriculture including forest land have been lost from the sampled households. About 6 acres of agricultural land situated away from the river banks are said to be in possession among few households. In the process many forest land have been cleared which will eventually reduce innumerable species of plants and animals.

Pollution:

Alteration in the chemical composition and quality of air, water and noise denotes pollution in the environment. As the streams are now stagnant the quality of the water is very poor. While on the upstream the water at present is not fit for household purpose because decomposition of plants and other waste has been taking place and the water gives some filthy smell.

Table 7: Environmental condition

	Same (%)	Better (%)	Worse (%)
Noise pollution	100	-	-
Air	73.5	-	26.4
General hygiene	86.8	-	13.2
Water	64.7	-	35.3
Climatic condition	19.1	-	80.9

Source: Field work, 2017

It is evident from the table 7 that the village now has worse climatic condition as the area now experience abnormal rainfall with regard to time and amount as well as extreme climatic condition due to fluctuations in the atmospheric temperature. This sudden change in the climatic condition can be caused due to presence of huge water body. However, in case of of Mapithel dam siltation is not yet noticed because the reservoir is still young compared to other.

Health Impact:

Large dam projects often lead to the spread of certain communicable diseases. The common water-borne diseases are typhoid, jaundice, cholera, diarrhea and dysentery. The storage reservoir with shallow weed and infested edges provide breeding grounds for disease carrying mosquitoes. It is interesting to know that there is not much incidence of spreading any disease. There is some common disease that was prevalent before the dam was constructed. Fever and cough is one of such disease as it is an airborne disease while water borne disease became widespread after the dam construction.

As seen in figure 8 the kind of diseases prevalent in the study area includes fever, malaria, dysentery, skin disease, typhoid and chicken box. The diseases associated with the effect of dam construction include skin disease that is mostly suffered by the fishermen’s and people who spent most time in the polluted water. The percentage of skin disease increased from (5.9%) to (38.2%). Cough and fever still remains prevalent, however comparatively lower than before of about (72%) to (39.7%), children’s are the highly affected population from these disease.

	Less than Rs.10,000	Rs.10,000-20,000	Rs.20,000-30,000	Rs.30,000-40,000	More than Rs.40,000
Before	2	18	23	21	4
After	24	26	12	2	4