INTRODUCTION:

Regional inequalities are a development challenge, especially those in large geographic areas; a situation in many developing countries including India (Reddy, 2012). There are spatial variations in natural resources, climate, topography, vegetation and density of population in different parts of India. Consequently, there are variations in the level of economic development amongst different regions of India which is termed as the problem of regional disparities. In certain pockets of India poverty remained significantly high and has been persisting for decades. Persistent high-level poverty exceeding 30 percent have mostly been reported from five states such as Odisha, Bihar (including Jharkhand), Madhya Pradesh (including Chhattisgarh), Assam and Uttar Pradesh (including Uttarakhand) (Mehta and Shah, 2003).

Odisha, with a population of 41.9 million (2011 Census), is the poorest state of India for decades. For instance, the rural head count ratio of poverty in Odisha was 77.3 percent in 1973-74, 47.08 percent in 1999-2000 and most of the poor people are chronically poor (Meher, 2002). Rural population constitutes 83 percent of the total population of the state. The rural-urban poverty ratio is 48 percent versus 43 percent (NSS report, 1999-2000). The annual per capita income is estimated to be approximately 250 US Dollar (World Bank Report No-39855 IN, 2007: 3).

One of the salient features of chronic poverty in Odisha is regional disparities. The negative effects of growing regional disparities is particularly high in backward states, where more than 60 percent of the population lives in rural areas with agriculture as the main form of livelihood (Ravallion and Datt, 1996). A considerable variation exists in incidence of poverty within Odisha, with the coastal areas characterized by more development and lower poverty rate as against the interior parts being less developed and incidence of poverty is very high. Analyzing the income poverty data of NSS (1999-2000) and on the basis of that dividing Odisha into three regions it was observed that rural poverty in coastal Odisha was 32 percent, in North Odisha 50 percent and 87 percent in south Odisha which covers most of the “KBK” districts (Haan and Dubey, 2005:2322). The three undivided districts such as Kalahandi, Bolangir and Koraput are called “KBK” districts and the area covered by these districts is called “KBK” region of Odisha.

This paper tries to explore the key reasons behind persistence of chronic poverty in “KBK” region of Odisha with respect to spatial disadvantages, social identity and policy approach. As planned development in India has been based on the notion of ensuring balanced regional development the special area development programme launched by the government for the overall development of this region has been discussed in detail.

AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONES:

Odisha is divided into four agro-climatic zones namely Coastal Plain (CP), Central Table Land (CTL), Northern Plateau (NP) and Eastern Ghats (EG) sharing 26 percent, 24 percent, 18 percent and 32 percent of the total area of the state. The Coastal Plain region is the most prosperous with fertile land and an average annual rainfall of about 1454mm. It is the region with the highest land productivity in the state. The Central Table Land region is also relatively richer with the normal annual rainfall of 1484mm with low to medium fertile soils with an elevation of about 300m above mean Sea level. It also has alluvial soils on hill slopes and river valleys with high land productivity. The Northern Plateau region is a plateau with number of hill ranges rising to an elevation of 600m to 900m above mean Sea level with normal annual rainfall of about 1610mm. The soils are acidic with low fertility and are subject to erosion. The Eastern Ghats region is the most backward. The well-known Kalahandi, Bolangir and Koraput (KBK) districts are located here. The normal rainfall is about 1500 mm. Soils have medium to low fertility (Reddy, 2012).

The KBK Districts: Geographical and Administrative divisions

Table 1: Administrative divisions of the KBK districts

Districts	Area (sq.KM)	Number of
Districts	Area (sq.KM)	Blocks	TSP	Subdivisions	Tehsils	GPs	Villages
Koraput	8807	14	14	2	7	226	2028
Malkangiri	5791	7	7	1	3	108	1045
Nawrangpur	5291	10	10	1	4	169	901
Rayagada	7073	11	11	2	4	171	2667
Bolangir	6575	14	-	3	6	285	1794
Sonepur	2337	6	-	2	4	96	959
Kalahandi	7920	13	2	2	7	273	2236
Nuapada	3852	5	-	1	2	109	663
KBK Districts	47646	80	44	14	37	1437	12293
Odisha	155707	314	118	58	316	6134	50295

Source: District Statistical Handbook 2007, Panchayatiraj Department Govt. of Odisha and ST & SC Development Dept Govt. of Odisha

The undivided districts of Kalahandi, Bolangir and Koraput are popularly known as the KBK districts. These three districts have been reconstituted into eight districts namely Koraput, Malkangiri, Nawrangpur, Rayagada, Bolangir, Sonepur, Kalahandi and Nuapada. The KBK districts comprise of 14 subdivisions, 37 Tahsils, 80 Community Development blocks, 1437 Gram Panchayats and 12293 villages. The total geographical area of KBK districts is 47,646 sq.km.

Socio-Economic Background:

As per 2011 census data the KBK districts account for 20.5 percent population over 30.60 percent geographical area of the state. The rural population of this region constitutes 89.41 percent of the total population as against 83.3 percent at the state level. This region is again characterized by low population densities, which are 181 persons per sq.km in comparison to 269 persons per sq. km in Odisha. This signifies difficult living conditions and an underdeveloped economy.

Map of KBK Districts:

Source: eOdisha.org

Table 2: Demographic and Literacy indicators in the KBK districts, 2011

District	Pop. Density	Population Indicators					Literacy Rate
District	Pop. Density	Total	Female (%)	Rural (%)	ST (%)	SC (%)	Total (%)	Female (%)
Koraput	156	1379647	50.79	83.6	50.5	14.2	41.1	32.4
Malkangiri	105	613192	50.4	91.9	57.8	22.5	39.9	31.5
Nawrangpur	230	1220946	50.46	92.8	55.79	14.52	38.5	29.7
Rayagada	136	967911	51.2	84.8	55.9	14.4	42.1	33.4
Bolangir	250	1648997	49.6	88.03	21.05	17.8	56.2	46.5
Sonepur	261	610183	48.9	91.8	9.3	25.6	65.2	56.2
Kalahandi	199	176869	50.08	92.2	28.5	18.1	50.8	40.2
Nuapada	158	610382	50.5	94.4	33.8	13.4	49.04	38.4
KBK Districts	181	8628127	50.2	89.4	38.6	17.05	47.7	38.26
Odisha	269	41974218	49.4	83.3	22.8	17.1	63.7	56.12

Source: Calculated from Primary Census Abstract, Census of India, 2011, Orissa

This region is dominated by tribal communities. As per 2011 census, Scheduled Tribes constitute 38.6percent of the total population. Similarly, 17.05 percent population belongs to Scheduled Castes. Literacy rates are abysmally low. Female literacy is a meager 38.2 percent in comparison to 56.1 percent of Odisha. However, the region shows a very unusually favourable sex ratio. It varies from lowest of 966 females per thousand males in Sonepur district to highest of 1028 in Rayagada district (Statistical Abstract of Orissa 2008). The favourable sex ratio in this region may be due to the migration of males to other states (Orissa Development Report 2002). This is a reflection of economic backwardness and distress migration of males.

Poverty in KBK Region:

Odisha continues to be one of the poorest states in the country, where currently 39.9 percent population are poor (Table-3). As per the estimates of the planning commission the percentage of people living below poverty line in KBK region was 89.14 percent against 47.15 percent in Odisha and 26.1 percent in India (1999-2000). Compared to other states of India the percentage of people living below poverty line in the KBK region is exceptionally high. Percentage of BPL population in Haryana, Punjab and Kerala in 1999-2000 was 8.74, 6.16 and 12.72 percent respectively.

Table 3: Incidence of poverty in KBK region, Orissa, other states and India, 1977-78 to 2004-05 (Based on MRP consumption)

State	People below poverty line (%)
State	1977-78	1983	1987-88	1993-94	1999-00	2004-05
Haryana	29.55	21.37	16.54	25.05	8.74	9.90
Kerala	52.22	40.42	31.79	25.43	12.72	11.40
Orissa	70.07	65.29	55.58	48.56	47.15	39.90
KBK reg.		81.3	82.6	71.40	89.14
Punjab	19.27	16.18	13.20	11.77	6.16	5.20
Tamil Nadu	54.79	51.66	43.39	35.03	21.12	17.80
All India	51.32	44.48	38.36	35.97	26.10	21.80

Source: Planning Commission, Govt. of India cited in Orissa Economic Survey 2007-08

The KBK region has been historically poor for several years. The percentage of poverty was 81.3 percent in 1983, 82.6 percent in 1987-88 and in 1993-94 it reduced to 71.4 but again increased to 89.14 percent in 1999-2000 because of effects of displacement and land alienation in the wake of economic liberalization and initiation of number of infrastructural and mining projects (Shah et al 2004).

Table 4: Agricultural indicators of KBK districts 2006-07

Districts/State	Area under Food grain Production (Thousand hectares)	Yield of Food grain (Kg/Hect.)	Total Food grain Production (Thousand Metric tons)	Percentage of Irrigated Area	Fertilizer Consumption (Kg/Hect.)
Koraput	264.58	1217	322.08	31.9	30
Malkangiri	137.65	1098	151.20	28.76	25
Nawrangpur	247.66	1488	368.47	14.2	70
Rayagada	154.29	1182	182.36	20.17	33
Bolangir	356.97	1049	374.54	14.5	32
Sonepur	168.09	1768	297.22	50.9	34
Kalahandi	460.88	930	428.74	34.91	51
Nuapada	207.94	795	165.39	21.75	34
Odisha	6839.86	1213	8297.98	32.37	47

Source: Orissa Agricultural Statistics 2006-07

Agriculture in KBK region:

Though 39 percent of total geographical area is under cultivation in KBK region, agriculture in this region is not productive and high yielding (Table-4) because of topography of the region. Most of the KBK districts come under Eastern Ghat High Land agro-climatic region in which the area is covered by hills and forests and as a result poor in agricultural output. This region also lacks in terms of irrigation. Only 26 percent of total area of KBK districts is irrigated compared to 33 percent of the state (Orissa Agricultural Statistics 2006-07). The agriculture productivity of KBK region is very low as compared to the state (Table-4). This is due to prevalence of primitive agricultural practices such as low fertilizer consumption, lack of use of HYV seeds, farm implements and less diversification of cropping pattern (Monoculture) (ODR 2002).

Natural calamities like heavy monsoon rain, floods and drought are also responsible for low agricultural production. Banik (2005) reports that though the rainfall is same as other region of Odisha, the major problem is the late arrival of monsoon and uneven distribution of rainfall.

Forest based Economy:

Presently 35 percent area of KBK region is covered under forest and the forestry sector. About 25 to 50 percent of the total income of the state comes from the forest products, particularly, non timber forest products (Shah et al 2005). The collection of non timber forest products such as Mahua flower, Sal seed and Kendu leaf is the major source of earning for the disadvantaged sections like widow and old person.

Table 5: Forest area in KBK districts (2009-2010)

KBK Districts	Forest area as percentage of Geographical area (2009-2010)
Koraput	21.34
Malkangiri	57.94
Nawrangpur	46.54
Rayagada	39.76
Bolangir	23.4
Sonepur	17.79
Kalahandi	32.04
Nuapada	48.0
Odisha	37.35

Source: Principal Chief Conservator of Forest, Odisha cited in Economic Survey, Odisha 2011-12

Depletion of forest resources has resulted in decline of availability of non timber forest products to the local people. This has also triggered poverty in KBK region. The series of mining and large-scale industrial projects are the major causes of deforestation in this region (Economic Survey of Orissa, 2007-08). The total forest area of KBK districts decreased from 70 percent of total land area in 1960 to 38.6 percent in 1997 (Orissa Development Report, 2002:319).

Rural Non farm Economy:

An analysis of the work force structure of KBK region shows that there is little occupational diversification. Although there is a marked shift of workers from primary to secondary sector occupation at the state level, the KBK region also lags behind in this respect. While the workers engaged in primary sector have declined from 85.15 percent in 1971 to 84.38 percent in 1991 the workers stagnated around 5 percent of total work force (Orissa Development Report, 2002:118).

The reason behind little occupational diversification in this region is low skills and education. In recent years there is rise in small scale sectors in rural areas in Odisha, but it does not provide advantages to KBK districts. For example, there were establishment of only 651 small scale units in all the eight KBK districts compared to 4786 in Odisha during 2005-06 (Statistical Abstract of Orissa, 2008).

Transport and Communication:

Though the eight KBK districts cover 31 percent of the total geographical area of the state, there is only 598km of National Highways, 1200km of State Highways and 6328km rural roads as against the total state’s figure of 3592km, 4959km and 27,402km respectively (Statistical Abstract of Orissa 2008). Two KBK districts namely Malkangiri and Rayagada are not connected by National Highways. There is only 683km of railway routes in the KBK region compared to 2340km in the state. Three districts namely Malkangiri, Nawrangpur and Sonepur do not have railway routes. According to Mallick and Meher (1999) most of the villages of this region are underdeveloped in terms of infrastructure facilities and inaccessible due to poor road transport networks.

Special Area Development Programmes:

Removal of regional disparities has been one of the important development strategies adopted by the Government of Odisha during successive five-year plans. However, due to several economic, social and institutional obstacles the gains of development have not been extended to all the regions of the state in an equitable manner. Some regions continue to languish in abject poverty. One such region in Odisha is the KBK region which acquired prominence in the national discourse in the 1980s due to reports of starvation deaths. This prompted the Government to chalk out a comprehensive programmefor eradication of poverty from the KBK region. Area development project for poverty termination (ADAPT) was started in eight tribal blocks in Kalahandi and seven blocks in Koraput in 1988. The basic objectives of this programme were to provide livelihood opportunities to the people through increased agricultural productivity. Under this programme irrigation infrastructure, extension services for high value crops, development of dairy and fishery and afforestation projects were taken up. However, the programme was terminated in December, 1989 because it was felt that the projects were not sustainable in the long run. As adhoc approaches adopted in the past to develop these regions did not yield desired results, the Government of Odisha in consultation with the Government of India have adopted a special area development approach for this region. Attention of the Government was directed to the persisting poverty and destitution in the region. These were addressed under the Long-Term Action Plan (LTAP) for KBK launched by the Government in August 1995.

Long Term Action Plan (LTAP):

For the accelerated development of this region with special attention to removal of poverty and livelihood support a Long-Term Action Plan (LTAP) was formulated by the state Government in consultation with Government of India. The Long-Term Action Plan had a seven years project life (1995-96 to 2001-02). This plan was formulated with two principal objectives in view: (1) drought proofing, (2) poverty alleviation and development saturation. However, under this plan a meager allocation of Rs20.49 Crore was received as additional assistance during the first three years from 1995-96 to 1997-98. Therefore, Long Term Action Plan from 1995 to 2002 did not take off due to inadequate fund flow and major initiatives could not be undertaken.

Revised Long Term Action Plan (RLTAP):

Long Term Action Plan was modified as Revised Long-Term Action Plan (RLTAP) that was conceived as a comprehensive and a long-term special area development plan for a period of nine years from 1998-99 to 2006-07. This project envisaged an integrated approach for accelerated socio-economic development of the KBK region by synergizing effectively various developmental activities and schemes under implementation both in central as well as state sectors.

The objectives of the RLTAP were

1. Drought proofing

2. Poverty alleviation and development saturation

3. Improved quality of life for local people

The KBK region has been receiving Special Central Assistance (SCA) and Additional Central Assistance (ACA) under Revised Long-Term Action Plan with a view to bridging up the critical gaps in the development efforts as well as dearth of resources. The Revised Long-Term Action Plan has a total outlay of Rs 6061.83 Crore. Major part of the resources come from Central Sector and Centrally Sponsored Schemes in agriculture, horticulture, watershed development, afforestation, irrigation, health, drinking water, emergency feeding programme, welfare of SCs and STs and rural connectivity. Under this programme, a sum of Rs1963.95 Crore has been received from Government of India during 1998-99 to 2010-11 and an expenditure of Rs1962.69 Crore has been incurred till March, 2011. The Government of India has also included the KBK districts under National Food for Work programme and National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA). The Central Government also proposed to include these eight districts under Backward Regions Grant Fund (BRGF) retaining the special funding for this region at Rs 250 Crore per year.

Biju KBK Plan:

With a view to maintaining and strengthening the momentum gathered by Revised Long Term Action Plan in the KBK region the State Government launched a new initiative, called the Biju KBK Plan under State Plan (State’s own resource). It was implemented for a period of five years with effect from 2007-08 to 2011-12 and envisaged an annual outlay of Rs120 Crore over and above normal plan allocations and the special central assistance received by the region under Backward Region Grant Fund (BRGF). This plan aims at

· Creating opportunities for economic, social and human development for the people in the region especially the disadvantaged.

· Accelerating poverty reduction and achieving millennium development goals

· Improving the quality of life of the local people and bringing the region at par with other developed regions.

In order to achieve these objectives, the following strategies seem appropriate.

Building rural productive infrastructure (e.g. roads, bridges, irrigation projects, tanks, watershed development, markets, and storagegodowns) and conserving natural resources (e.g. forests, soils and water).

Developing programme for income generation on sustainable basis (e.g. productive rural infrastructure, NREGA, agricultural development and micro credit supply).

Mobilizing and empowering the rural poor (e.g. self-help group, vanasamrakshanasamitis (VSS), Pani Panchayats and Bhumi Panchayats).

Restructuring and enhancing the social security system (e.g. emergency feeding programme, special nutrition programme, mobile health units, promotion of education among ST/SC girls).

CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS:

Spatial disadvantages of the KBK region in terms of remoteness, agriculture-based subsistence economy and depleting income from non timber forest products are major factors contributing to chronic poverty. Backwardness of this region is also due to low level of industrial growth and market development, lower health and educational status along with higher population growth and a large section of its population belong to socially marginalized communities such as Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.

The state policies in India have a long history of addressing the issue of developing “backward areas”, defined by using multiple categorizations. However, these policies, have achieved only limited success, as the central focus of these policies has been on ‘mainstreaming’ these areas into the larger processes of economic development instead of addressing the very root cause of poverty and reproduction thereof. Government anti-poverty programmes have remained ineffective due to top down policies, manipulation in participatory programmes, faulty methods, faulty selection of beneficiaries and leakage of growth.

In order to address inter district and intra district regional disparities, the following strategies specifically focused on backward districts need to be implemented.

a. Building rural infrastructure (e.g., roads, bridges, drainage and irrigation projects, markets and warehouses).

b. Targeted programmes for development of areas with high SC and ST population.

c. The slow rate of occupational diversification, coupled with a high workforce dependency on the agricultural sector, is an indicator of economic backwardness and stagnation. Therefore, the task is to shift the workforce from the agricultural sector to non-agricultural sector in this region.

d. The non-farm sector can play a major role in the development of the KBK districts. These districts are famous in traditional industries like handloom, pottery, stone carving, wood carving, paper flower making, horn work, paddy craft etc. The revival of the traditional industry will not only sustain the poor but will also check migration in this region. The marketing societies need a boost. The government should provide artisans with proper marketing facilities for their products.

e. The total forest area of KBK districts reduced largely after independence. Commercialization of forests has deprived the local people of the minor forest produce, which is an important source for their livelihood. The forest policy should make provisions for those who are directly dependent on forest products to get raw materials without any problem.

f. A major step towards overcoming agricultural backwardness in this region is the development and revival of the traditional source of irrigation like network of ponds, wells, tanks etc. managed by the local institutions like ‘Jalsabha’ so as to provide water not only for increasing agricultural productivity but also productive employment for the poor of this region.

g. Transforming low input low value agriculture to high input high value agriculture especially in backward regions through special agricultural development programmes, agricultural diversification programmes, development of input and output markets, seed production and distribution. There is also a need to develop storage facilities like godowns, cold storages and indigeneous storage structures. This will reduce post harvest loss.

h. There is a need to develop transport sector to facilitate movement of local products and local people.

REFERENCES:

1. Banik, D. (2005) democracy and the politics of Hunger: Food and Human right in development, Intersentia, Anntwerp, Oxford.

2. Haan, A.D. and Dubey, A. (2005) ‘Poverty, Disparities and the Development of Underdevelopment in Orissa’, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.XL, NO.22, pp2321-2329

3. Meher, R.K. (2002) Evaluation of anti poverty programmes in Nabrangpur district of Orissa, NCDS, Bhubaneswar

4. Meher, R.K. and Mallick, R.M. (1999) Impact of IRDP on KBK district of Orissa, NCDS, Bhubaneswar

5. Mehta, A.K. and Shah, A. (2003) Chronic Poverty in India: incidence, causes and policies, world development, 31 (3), pp491-511

6. National Sample Survey Report (1999/2000), National Sample Survey Organisation, Government of India, New Delhi

7. Orissa Agricultural Statistics (2006-07), Directorate of Agriculture and Food Production, Orissa, Bhubaneswar

8. Orissa Development Report (2002), Government of Orissa, Bhubaneswar

9. Orissa Human Development Report (2004), UNDP, Bhubaneswar, Orissa

10. Ravallion, M. and Datt, G. (1996), ‘How Important to India’s Poor is the Sectoral Composition of Economic Growth?’ World Bank Economic Review, 10, (1), pp1-25

11. Reddy, A.A. (2012) ‘Sources of Agricultural Productivity Growth in Orissa, India: A Regional Perspective’, Regional Development Studies, Vol.16, pp98-116.

12. Shah, A., Nayak, S.K. and Das, B. (2005) Forest Region in Southern Orissa: A Tale of Entitlement Failure and State’s Apathy, Paper presented at CPRC-IIPA Seminar on Chronic Poverty: Emerging Policy Options and Issues, 29^th and 30^th Sep, 2005, IIPA, New Delhi

13. Statistical Abstract of Orissa (2008) Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Orissa, Bhubaneswar

14. World Bank Report (2007) no-39855 IN, India achieving the MDGs in India’s poor states, Human Development Unit, South Asia

Received on 02.05.2020 Modified on 30.06.2020

Res. J. Humanities and Social Sciences. 2020; 11(4):261-266.

DOI: 10.5958/2321-5828.2020.00042.X

Dist/State	Total Main Workers		Primary Sector		Secondary Sector		Tertiary Sector
Dist/State	1971	1991	1971	1991	1971	1991	1971	1991
KBK	34.05	37.99	85.15	84.38	4.88	4.89	9.97	10.73
Odisha	31.22	32.78	80.35	75.83	6.47	7.51	13.18	16.66