The Critical and comparative analysis of Ancient and Modern thoughts of Sanskrit Scholars on the ‘Characteristics of Mahakavya’
Sandeep Namdev Dhikale (Sandeep Sagar)
Dept. of Peace Studies, MIT World Peace University, Pune, Maharashtra, India, 411038.
*Corresponding Author E-mail:
ABSTRACT:
This research paper undertakes a critical and comparative analysis of the perspectives on the 'Characteristics of Mahakavya' as articulated by Sanskrit scholars in both ancient and modern times. The study delves into the profound insights offered by scholars from different eras, examining the evolution of thought and the nuanced interpretations of Mahakavya characteristics. By juxtaposing ancient and modern viewpoints, the paper aims to illuminate the continuum of scholarly discourse surrounding Mahakavya, shedding light on the enduring relevance and evolving interpretations of this literary form in Sanskrit literature. The analysis navigates through key themes, methodologies, and philosophical underpinnings, providing a comprehensive exploration of the dynamic interplay between traditional and contemporary perspectives on the 'Characteristics of Mahakavya.'
KEYWORDS: Characteristics of Mahakavya, Mahakavya, Thoughts on Mahakavya, definition of Mahakavya, Sanskrit Mahakavya.
INTRODUCTION:
The modern Sanskrit literature owes its existence to the tireless efforts of orthodox and modern Sanskrit scholars. The contribution made by scholars has not only given a new lease of life to the Sanskrit language but also enriched it with new ideas and contemporary perspectives. Sanskrit literature is broad and diverse, encompassing various genres such as poetry, drama, fiction, and scholarly works. Within the rich fabric of Sanskrit literature, 'Mahakavya' emerges as a genre that captures the grandeur and complexity of classical poetry. Mahakavya (महाकाव्य) is a composite of two words, (mahat) great and kavya (poem), meaning a ‘great poem’. Mahakavya is generally differentiated from the rest of the kavyas by its essence, i.e. by its subject matter and treatment.
The Mahakavya’ occupies a very significant position in the Sanskrit literature. So, it has been duly discussed by the rhetoricians like Daṇḍin, Viśvanatha Kaviraja, and others. Mahakavya’ is called as an Epic or an Epic poem in English. It is a lengthy narrative poem typically about the extraordinary deeds of extraordinary characters who, in dealings with gods or other superhuman forces, gave shape to the mortal universe for their descendants. 1
In the tradition of Lakshana Granthas, the role of Acharya Bhamaha is very significant in the subject concerning the critical appreciation of a Mahakavya’, who is known after Acharya Bharata. The later Acharyas accepted the characteristics prescribed by him with slight modifications here and there.
Acharya Viśvanatha, in his Sahityadarpaṇa, brings a very elaborate discussion on the salient features of a Mahakavya’2. Mahakavya’ also known as Sargabandha, is a genre of Indian epic poetry in Classical Sanskrit. It is also known as big kavya or court epic. It is considered the most prestigious form in the Sanskrit literature. The genre evolved from the earlier epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. Despite the length of Mahakavya’ (15-30 cantos, a total of about 1500-3000 verses), they are still much shorter than the Ramayana (500 cantos, 24000 verses) and the Mahabharata (about 100000 verses). The Buddhist poet and philosopher Aśvaghoṣa (c. 80 – c. 150 CE) is one of the earliest Sanskrit poets with surviving Kavya literature. Another kavya by Aśvaghoṣa is the Saundarananda, which focuses on the conversion of Nanda, Buddha's half-brother. 3
Our tradition identifies five works as model Mahakavya’:
1. Kumarasambhava by Kalidasa in 5th century CE: the wedding of Shiva and Parvati, and the birth of Kumara, in 17 cantos
2. Raghuvaṃśa by Kalidasa: the Raghu dynasty, in 19 cantos (about 1564 verses)
3. Kiratarjuniya by Bharavi in 6th century CE: Arjuna's encounter with a Kirata (Shiva) 18 cantos (about 2500 years ago)
4. Naiśadha-carita by Shriharsha in 1174 AD: on the life of King Nala and Queen Damayanti, 22 cantos
5. Śiśupala-vadha by Magha in 7th century CE: the slaying of Shishupala by Krishna, 22 cantos (about 1800 verses)
To this list, sometimes a sixth one is also added.
Bhaṭṭikavya, by Bhaṭṭi in the 7th century CE: describes the events of the Ramayana and simultaneously illustrates the principles of Sanskrit grammar, with 22 cantos.
Characteristics of Mahakavya According to Ancient Scholars of Kavyashastra:
According to Bhamaha, a Mahakavya’ should be composed of Cantos (Sargas) Sargabandho Mahakavyam. Its subject matter (Vastu) should be Noble. It may concern the humans or the legends of divine beings (devadicarita). It may be based on a traditional lore, or an imagined story (Utpadya-vastu) rooted in Arts (Kalashraya) or treaties (Shastras). Its hero (Nayaka) should be noble; and should be endowed with all the virtues. Prominence should be given to the hero, describing his noble birth, prowess, training in Shastra, etc. The story should be narrated in the refined language (a-gramya) with graceful and meaningful words adorned with Alankaras (salamkaram). Manthra (state councils), Doothaprayana (emissaries-relation with other states), battles, and victory of the hero, are narrated in five Samdhis. It should be comprehensible without detailed explanation; but, complete in all aspects. One predominant sentiment should run through the entire length of the poem. The other Rasas could be brought out separately. Though it deals with the four-fold Purusharthas, the Artha should be given prominence. Worldly matters should be depicted.
According to Acharya Bhamaha the important elements4 of an Epic are –
1. Division into Cantos
2. Great and profound subject
3. Sublime hero
4. Interpretation of four classes
5. Rising of the hero
6. The element of righteousness
7. Drama’s Characteristic-Five divisions
8. Inclusion of the nature of people and various sentiments
9. Prosperity-Description of Moonrise, Seasons etc. Generally, we find all these elements in the Sanskrit Mahakavya’.
In the Mahakavya’ genre, more emphasis was laid on description than on narration. Indeed, the traditional characteristics of a Mahakavya’ are listed by Daṇḍin in Kavyadarśa. He writes that - It springs from a historical incident or is otherwise based on some fact; it turns upon the fruition of the fourfold ends and its hero is clever and noble; By descriptions of cities, oceans, mountains, seasons, and risings of the moon or the sun; through sportings in garden or water and festivities of drinking and love; Through sentiments-of-love-in-separation and marriages, by descriptions of the birth-and-rise of princes, and likewise through state-counsel, embassy, advance, battle, and the hero’s triumph; Embellished; not too condensed, and pervaded all through with poetic sentiments and emotions; with cantos none too lengthy and having agreeable meters and well-formed joints, And in each case furnished with an ending in a different meter—such a poem possessing good figures-of-speech wins the people’s heart and endures longer than even a Kalpa. 5,6
It must take its subject matter from the epics (Ramayana or Mahabharata), or history, It must help further the four goals of man (Purusharthas), Rama and Krishna were said to be the greatest men in Purushartha by several writers such as Valmiki and Vyasa. Chanakya claimed the two men to be the greatest of all human beings who are selfless and keep their vows. For example- Rama despite being a stepson of Kaikeyi obeyed her and kept his promise, went to the forests for 14 years, and had to suffer throughout his life in the forest.
Mahakavya’ must contain descriptions of cities, seas, mountains, moonrise and sunrise, and "accounts of merrymaking in gardens, of bathing parties, drinking bouts, and lovemaking. It should tell the sorrow of separated lovers and should describe a wedding and the birth of a son. It should describe a king's council, an embassy, the marching forth of an army, a battle, and the victory of a hero".7 These are not random suggestions but specific requirements. Every complete Mahakavya’ that has come down to us from the time of Kalidasa contains the whole list, which if one considers it carefully, will be seen to contain the basic repertory of Sanskrit poetry. Contained in it are the essential elements of nature, love, society, and war which a poet should be able to describe. It is composed of a varying number of short poems or cantos, that tell the story of a classical epic. Each poem is composed in a meter that is fitting to the subject matter, such as a description of the seasons, or a geographical form of nature such as a mountain, and city. 8
There are many scholars in the tradition of Lakshana Granthas (Poetics/ Sahityashastra / Kavyashastra). Some of them are unknown because of the unavailability of their texts (Kohala, Tumbaru, Dattila, Mataṅga, Katyayana, Rahula, Udbhaṭa, Lollaṭa, Śaṅkuka, Bhaṭṭanayaka, Bhaṭṭayaṃtra, Kīrtidhara, Matṛgupta, Subandhū, Aśmakuṭṭa, Badarayaṇa, Śatakarṇī Nakhakuṭṭa) and there are many of them who are well known to the field of poetics. (Bharata, Medhavirudra (Medhavī), Bhamaha, Daṇḍī, Vamana, Udbhaṭa, Rudraṭa, Śaṅkuka, Anandavardhana, Rudrabhaṭṭa, Rajaśekhara, Mukulabhaṭṭa, Dhanañjaya, Bhaṭṭanayaka, Lollaṭa, Abhinavagupta, Kuntaka, Sagaranandin, Bhojaraja, Mahimabhaṭṭa, Kṣemendra, Mammaṭa, Hemacandra, Ramacandra-Guṇacandra, Vagbhaṭa, Ruyyaka, Amaracandra-Arisiṃha, Amaracandra, Jayadeva, Śaradatanaya, Śiṅgabhūpala, Vidyadhara, Vidyanatha, Bhanudatta, Deveśvara, Viśvanatha, Rūpagosvamī, Paramanandadasa (Kavi Karṇapūra) Keśavamiśra, Appayyadīkṣita, Kavicandra, Jagannatha) following are the views of these scholars about Mahakavya –
Viṣṇudharmottarapuraṇa:
Viṣṇudharmottarapuraṇa focuses on various aspects of art, architecture, and aesthetics. It provides a summary of the characteristics and qualities of a Mahakavya’9, as - "A Mahakavya’ is a great poetic composition that narrates a story, infused with the spirit of valour and conflict. It portrays the rise of heroes and their achievements. It describes the landscapes, mountains, rivers, and women of the land. It depicts the protagonist and the antagonist, both of whom embody righteousness and have embraced the path of truth. The hero attains victory in matters of righteousness and also triumphs over the world. However, the killing of the antagonist should not be described, but rather the attainment of the hero's desired goals. The demise of the hero, the great king, should not be described, but rather the moment of his attainment. It should be devoid of poetic meters, in prose style, contrary to the rules of the science of sound (shabda-shastra), and contain difficult syllables and words, yet remain elegant in its expression. Its meaning should be extraordinary, not well-known or clichéd. It should not have repetition, envy, fear, grief, haste, or prediction in the form of a messenger's speech, dream, or future indication. It should not be ambiguous, without a clear declaration, contradicting the past and the future, or violating the norms of the world. It should incorporate the sentiments of love, humour, compassion, terror, anger, wonder, and tranquillity, with appropriate literary techniques. The composition of a Mahakavya’ should be adorned with artistic skills, adhering to righteousness and purpose, and culminating in the achievement of the protagonist." Viṣṇudharmottarapuraṇa outlines the qualities expected in a Mahakavya’, emphasizing the hero's journey, moral righteousness, avoidance of certain themes and styles, and the integration of various emotions and literary devices to create a powerful and impactful poetic composition.
Agnipuraṇa:
Agnipuraṇa highlights the characteristics of a Mahakavya, emphasizing its coherence, historical or timeless themes, appropriate use of poetic meters, elegant language, well-structured narrative, engaging episodes, beautiful descriptions, diverse emotions, and adherence to the principles of rasa. It also mentions the inclusion of various meters and the fulfilment of the fourfold objectives in the composition. In the Agnipuraṇa, Vedavyasa extensively elaborates on the attributes of Mahakavya’ 10
Kavyadarśa:
Kavyadarśa describes Mahakavya as a Sargabandha, which is a section of a Mahakavya’, is identified by certain features. It begins with reverential salutations to the sage or the object of praise. It may also start with a description of the main subject. It encompasses wonderful historical narratives or eternal themes. It includes the presentation of the fourfold objectives and the introduction of the protagonist. It beautifully portrays the qualities of cities, oceans, mountains, and the description of the rising and setting of the moon and the sun. It depicts scenes of garden pleasures, water sports, honey-drinking, and celebrations. It includes the depiction of separation and reunion and the portrayal of the growth of young princes. It may involve the sending of messengers and the narration of their journeys. It is adorned with appropriate ornamentation, concise yet rich in the experience of various rasas (aesthetic Flavors). The sections are not excessively extended but are well-crafted with proper use of meters. It weaves diverse narratives that captivate the audience and create entertainment everywhere. The Mahakavya’, with its varied and skilfully crafted sections, emerges as an adorned creation of literature. Even if certain aspects are less emphasized, they do not detract from the quality of the Mahakavya, as long as it achieves its purpose. 11
Sahityadarpaṇa:
Sahityadarpaṇa describes that the composition of a Mahakavya’ is divided into sections called Sarga, and each Sarga features a protagonist (Nayaka) who can be a divine being, a noble warrior, or a brave and virtuous person. The protagonist can belong to the warrior class (Kshatriya) or any other noble lineage, possessing courageous qualities. Different types of characters, such as those associated with love (Shringara), heroism (Vira), and tranquillity (Shanta), can be found within the Sarga. Each section of the Mahakavya’ encompasses various rasas (aesthetic flavors) and theatrical elements, while the overall composition is influenced by historical narratives and the support of virtuous people. The Mahakavya’ is organized into four categories, and each category serves a specific purpose. At the beginning, there may be salutations, blessings, or descriptions of the subject matter, as well as occasional criticisms of wicked individuals and praise of noble qualities. The verses in the Mahakavya’ are written in different meters, including both single-verse (ekavritta) and multi-verse (anyavritta) forms. The length of each Sarga varies and can be neither too short nor excessively long, resembling the structure of an octet. Some sections may consist of unique and diverse elements, while others serve as indicators of the transition between Sargas. Descriptions of various times of day, such as sunrise, noon, evening, and twilight, as well as depictions of forests, mountains, and oceans, can be found within the Sarga. The Mahakavya’ includes scenes of love and separation, heavenly abodes of sages, battles and journeys, and the rise of princes through rituals and mantras. The Mahakavya employs appropriate and suitable descriptions according to the context, featuring various aspects of the protagonist, other characters, or the Sarga itself. The names of the characters and the titles of the Sargas reflect their respective roles and themes. 12
The verses provide insights into the characteristics and structure of a Mahakavya’, including the presence of a protagonist, the portrayal of different characters and rasas, the division of the composition into Sargas, the use of various meters, the depiction of diverse scenes and elements, and the significance of names and titles within the work.
Valmīkiramayaṇa
Valmiki Ramayana describes the glorious fame achieved by Lord Rama through beautiful and meaningful words. The second verse praises the poet who, with hundreds of well-crafted verses, has displayed a magnificent work of poetry that brings forth fame. The third verse compares the work to a gem-adorned ocean, encompassing the virtues of desire and wealth as well as an extensive portrayal of righteousness and purpose. The fourth verse portrays the work as a captivating treasure-filled ocean that delights the minds of all listeners. The fifth verse describes the work as melodiously resonant, imbued with the charm of heavenly music, and flowing effortlessly like a river. The final verse indicates that the work is sung skilfully and harmoniously, with the appropriate rhythm and pronunciation, thereby captivating the hearts of the learned.
उदारवृत्तार्थपदैर्मनोरमैस्तदास्य रामस्य चकार कीर्तिमान् । समाक्षरै: श्लोकशतैर्यशस्विनो यशस्करं काव्यमुदारदर्शनः ॥13
कामार्थगुणसंयुक्तं धर्मार्थगुणविस्तरम् । समुद्रमिव रत्नाढ्यं सर्वश्रुतिमनोहरम् ॥ 14
शुश्राव तत्ताललयोपपन्नं सर्गान्वितं सुस्वरशब्दयुक्तम् । तन्त्रीलयव्यञ्जनयोगयुक्तं कुशीलवाभ्यां परिगीयमानम् ॥ 15
Bharatanaṭyaśastra
The definition of Mahakavya’ provided by the sage Bharata in the NS. outlines the essential qualities of Mahakavya’. According to Bharata, a Mahakavya’ should possess the following characteristics:
1. Mṛdulalitapadaḍhyaṃ (Soft and graceful words): The language used in Mahakavya’ should be gentle, elegant, and pleasing to the ear.
2. Gūḍhaṃ (Deep): The content of Mahakavya’ should have depth, complexity, and profound meaning.
3. Śabdarthahīnaṃ (Not devoid of words and meaning): Mahakavya’ should strike a balance between the use of rich vocabulary and conveying meaningful content.
4. Janapadasukhabodham (Understood by the masses): While possessing depth, Mahakavya’ should be accessible and comprehensible to the general audience.
5. Yuktimannṛtyayogyam (Suitable for chant, performance & music): Mahakavya’ should be crafted in a way that makes it suitable for performance.
6. Bahukṛta rasamarga sandhisaṃdhanayuktam (Rich in the path of Rasa with well-connected sections): The composition should be rich in the expression of emotions (Rasa) and have well-connected sections that contribute to the overall aesthetic experience.
This definition emphasizes the multifaceted nature of Mahakavya’, blending linguistic beauty, intellectual depth, accessibility to a wide audience, and suitability for performance arts. It underscores the significance of emotional resonance and aesthetic appeal in this classical poetic form.
मृदुललितपदाढ्यं गूढं शब्दार्थहीनं,
जनपदसुखबोधम् युक्तिमन्नृत्ययोग्यम् ।
बहुकृत रसमार्ग सन्धिसंधानयुक्तम्,
स भवति शुभकाव्यं नाटक प्रेक्षकाणाम् ॥16
Bhamahakavyalaṅkara:
Bhamaha, one of the early writers on poetics, in his work Kavyalaṅkarasaṅgraha, primarily emphasizes the importance of achieving a harmonious blend of form and content to create impactful poetry. Furthermore, he considers ornate writing to be the fundamental aspect of poetry.
यदि काव्य शरीरस्य न स व्यापितयेष्यते ।
न चाभ्युदयभाक्तस्य न मुघादौ ग्रहणस्तवौ ॥17
Mahakavya’, characterized by its considerable length, predominantly adopts a narrative style. It is organized into distinct cantos and employs an ornate and sophisticated language. The epic portrays various facets of human existence. Its plot is crafted in a dramatic manner, free from superfluous details, showcasing a well-structured and impressive composition. The central figure of the epic is often a deity, or a prince endowed with noble and generous qualities. The primary purpose of the epic is to achieve the four fundamental objectives of life: righteousness (Dharma), prosperity (Artha), desire (Kama), and liberation (Mokṣa) 18.
Kavyadarśa
Daṇḍin, the esteemed Sanskrit scholar, outlines the characteristics of Mahakavya’ in his work Kavyadarśa, following the characteristics described by the prior eminent scholars, says that -
The Mahakavya is known as "Sarga-bandha. The Mahakavya’ begins with a blessing, dedication, or indication of its contents. Its source material can be derived from Itihasa (epics) or other substantial narratives. It explores the four goals of life: Dharma (righteousness), Artha (prosperity), Kama (desire), and Mokṣa (liberation). The epic features a noble and magnanimous hero. It is adorned with vivid descriptions of cities, oceans, hills, seasons, moonrises, sunrises, garden recreations, aquatic sports, festive occasions, love, separation, marriage, nuptials, and the birth of princes. It includes scenes depicting consultations with ministers, sending messengers or ambassadors, royal progress, war, and the hero's victories. These aspects are elaborated upon, providing a rich experience of Rasa (flavour) and Bhava (suggestion). The sargas (chapters) are moderately sized and composed with pleasing verse measures that captivate the ear. The poem covers a wide range of topics, concluding each chapter with a different meter. A well-adorned poem of this nature will be appreciated by the general audience and endure for many epochs (kalpas). Even if some of these elements are missing, a poem can still be deemed acceptable if it pleases the discerning readers. Describing the hero's virtues initially and then belittling his enemies is considered a beautiful approach. Additionally, presenting the lineage, prowess, and scholarship of even the enemy and highlighting the hero's excellence through his victory over such a foe is also considered pleasing in Daṇḍin's view. 19
Kavyanuśasana:
Hemachandra, a Jain scholar and polymath underscore the inclusive and diverse nature of Mahakavya’ in his Kavyanuśasana. according to him, the form is not limited by linguistic constraints, and its structural complexity, combined with creative use of sounds and meanings, elevates it to a level of grandeur. The reference to various structural elements indicates that Mahakavya’ is not just a poetic creation; it is a carefully crafted work of art, embodying the intricacies of language and form. Kavyanuśasana briefly summarise the essential characteristics of Mahakavya’ saying- saṃskṛtaprakṛtapabhraṃśagramyabhaṣanibaddhabhinnantyavṛttasargaśvasasaṃdhyavaskaṃdhabaṃdha-satsaṃdhi śabdarthavaicitryopetaṃ mahakavyam20
Four characteristics can be seen in Kavyanuśasana -
1. Versatility of Language: संस्कृतप्राकृतापभ्रंशग्राम्यभाषानिबद्धभिन्नान्त्यवृत्तसर्गाः Mahakavya offers a rich collection of languages, seamlessly blending classical (Saṃskṛta), regional (Prakṛta), and elevated poetic expressions (apabhraṃśa). It embraces linguistic diversity, transcending the boundaries of conventional speech.
2. Structural Complexity: स्वाससंध्यवस्कंधबंध-सत्संधि:
3. It suggests complex structures and compositions, marked by complex interplay. There's a reference to various aspects like internal pauses (saṃdhi), junctures (saṃdhya), division (vaskandha), and bonding (bandha). This indicates a sophisticated and well-woven poetic structure.
4. Varied Meters and Forms: शब्दार्थवैचित्र्योपेत: Mahakavya’ is characterized by the diversity in the arrangement of sounds (śabda) and meanings (artha), showcasing an array of literary devices. The emphasis is on the ability to bring forth creative and varied expressions.
5. Expansiveness and Unity: Mahakavya’, predominantly presented in verse (padya), possesses a comprehensive and expansive nature. It suggests that Mahakavya’ is not confined to a specific style but encompasses a wide range of forms and expressions.
Kavyalankära of Rudrata:
Rudraṭa's definition emphasizes the dual nature of Mahakavya’, portraying it as a creation that is both manifested and unmanifested. The poet, endowed with creative power, plays a crucial role in giving form to this paradoxical creation. The verses also highlight the imaginative and creative freedom inherent in the process, encouraging the poet to not only compose but also to infuse imagination into the characters and narrative. Rudraṭa says –
उत्पाद्यानुत्पाद्या महल्लघुत्वेन भूयोऽपि ।
तत्रोत्पाद्या येषां शरीरमुत्पादयेत कविः सकलम् ॥
कल्पितयुक्तोत्पतिं नायकमपि कुत्रचित् कुर्यात् । 21
Prataparudrayaśobhūṣaṇa:
Vidyanatha, in his Prataparudrayaśobhūṣaṇa, provides a set of characteristics that define a Mahakavya’. The Mahakavya’, as outlined by Vidyanatha, becomes a comprehensive work that engages with various facets of life, emotions, and events, creating a tapestry of literary excellence. He says that The Mahakavya’ must include vivid descriptions of various scenes, encompassing elements such as cities, oceans, mountains, and the rising and setting of the moon and sun. further, he says that the narrative should incorporate playful activities in gardens and lakes, as well as celebrations of festivals involving the enjoyment of honey, water, and entertainment. These elements add a dynamic and lively aspect to the Mahakavya’.
To introduce emotional and dramatic dimensions, including love, separation, marriage, and the emergence of a royal figure, Vidyanatha suggests that the Mahakavya’ should depict themes of separation (vipralambha) and union (vivaha), as well as the rising of a prince (kumarodaya). Vidyanatha outlines the characteristics of a Mahakavya’ as follows:
नगरार्णवशैलर्तुचन्द्रार्कोदयवर्णनम् ।
उद्यानसलिलक्रीडामधुपानरतोत्सवाः ॥
विप्रलम्भो विवाहश्च कुमारोदयवर्णनम् ।
मन्त्रदूतप्रयाणाजिनायकाभ्युदया अपि ॥
एतानि यत्र वर्ण्यन्ते तन्महाकाव्यमुच्यते ।
एषामष्टादशानां यैः कैश्चिदूनमपीष्यते ॥22
Characteristics of Mahakavya according to modern scholars of Kavyashastra:
Having explored the characteristics of Mahakavya’ as delineated by ancient scholars in the realm of KS., we now shift our focus to the perspectives of modern scholars in the same field. The essence of Mahakavya’, a form of classical poetry, has been a subject of continual analysis and interpretation. Informed by the rich traditions of KS., contemporary scholars bring a nuanced understanding to the qualities that define Mahakavya’ in the context of modern literary discourse. Their insights contribute to a holistic appreciation of this poetic genre, bridging the wisdom of the past with the evolving sensibilities of the present. Let us embark on an exploration of the Characteristics of Mahakavya’ through the lens of modern KS. scholarship.
Rahas Bihari Dwivedi:
Besides the progression of the plot in Mahakavya’ can be observed through five stages known as Karyavasthas: Arambha (beginning), Yatna (effort), Praptyaśa (aspiration), Niyatapti (determination), and Phalagama (attainment). Additionally, the five elements of Arthaprakṛti (Bīja, Bindu, Pataka, Prakari and karya) play a role in the development of the plot, as well as in characterization and other aspects. These observations reflect the changes embraced by modern Sanskrit poets, as exemplified by Rahas Vihari Dwivedi specifically focuses on the characteristics of a Mahakavya’.
सर्गैर्वृत्तैश्च बद्धं सहृदयहृदयाह्लादिशब्दार्थरम्यं
संवादैश्चोच्चशिल्पैः सततरसमयं ग्रन्थिमुक्तं समृद्धम् ।
पात्रं स्याद् यस्य मुख्यं परमगुणयुतं लोकविख्यातवृत्तं
भव्यं लोकस्वभावं महदपि महतां तन्महाकाव्यमास्ते ॥23
In his work ‘Arvachin Sanskrit Mahakavya Visheshanka’ of prestigious ‘Sagarika’ journal by Sagarika Samiti (established by Ramji Upadhyaya), Rahas Vihari Dwivedi sheds light on the distinctive characteristics of Mahakavya’. Dwivedi's insights provide understanding of the elements that contribute to the grandeur of Mahakavya’. He underscores several key features that characterize a Mahakavya’. Dwivedi emphasizes the importance of structured sargas (cantos), suggesting that the composition should be bound together with the thread of well-defined divisions. These sargas, or divisions, should resonate with the reader's or listener's heart, evoking a sense of joy and delight. The usage of words, meanings, and expressions should be charming, resonating with the emotions of the audience. Dwivedi highlights the significance of dialogues (saṃvada), suggesting that Mahakavya’ should incorporate meaningful and impactful conversations. The use of eloquent and artistic expressions, coupled with skilful wordplay (śilpaiḥ), is essential to create a composition that is both aesthetically pleasing and intellectually stimulating. These dialogues should serve as the threads that intricately weave the narrative, contributing to the overall richness of the composition. He also emphasizes the idea of a granthimuktaṃ samṛddham, indicating that the Mahakavya’ should be decorated with metaphors and similes, symbolizing the unbound and flourishing creativity of the poet. He suggests that the composition should be free-flowing, unrestricted by rigid structures, while still maintaining a sense of completeness and abundance.
The primary character (patra) of the Mahakavya’ is described as one who embodies paramount virtues and is renowned among the masses for their virtuous deeds. The narrative should revolve around this central character, portraying their exemplary qualities and evoking admiration from the audience. Furthermore, the Mahakavya’ should depict stories that are widely recognized (lokavikhyatavṛttaṃ) and be reflective of the grandeur and inherent nature of the world (bhavyaṃ lokasvabhavaṃ).
Rahas Vihari Dwivedi's explanation on the characteristics of Mahakavya’ underscores the importance of well-structured sargas, engaging dialogues, artistic expressions, and a narrative that revolves around a virtuous central character. This framework aligns with the broader tradition of Mahakavya while offering specific insights into its composition.
Abhinavakavyalankarasūtram:
According to Radhavallabh Tripathi, Mahakavya can be succinctly defined as Padyatmakaṃ samagrajīvananirūpaṇaparaṃ mahakavyam, Gītaitihyapuraṇalokakathabhedadasya nanatvam. 24 In this formulation, he captures the essence of Mahakavya as a poetic form that encapsulates the entirety of life in a verse-centric manner. The term padyatmakaṃ underscores the centrality of verses in conveying the narrative, portraying life in its entirety. Furthermore, the emphasis on samagrajīvananirūpaṇaparaṃ highlights the Mahakavya’ ’s inherent quality of delineating and representing the full spectrum of human experiences and existence.
Tripathi's definition extends beyond mere storytelling, delving into the diversity inherent in Mahakavya’. By incorporating gītaitihyapuraṇalokakathabhedadasya nanatvam, he emphasizes the manifold nature of Mahakavya’, which draws inspiration from various sources such as songs, mythology, epics, and narratives from the world. This multi-faceted quality adds depth and richness to Mahakavya’, making it a comprehensive reflection of human life and culture.
Tripathi's definition aligns with the traditional understanding of Mahakavya’ while offering a contemporary perspective that acknowledges its adaptability and inclusivity. In essence, Mahakavya’, according to Radhavallabh Tripathi, emerges as a poetic form that weaves together the tapestry of life through verses, drawing from diverse cultural and literary sources to create a holistic and immersive narrative. 25
(Abhiraja) Rajendra Mishra:
Rajendra Mishra provides a comprehensive explanation of Mahakavya’ in his treatise titled – ‘Abhirajayaśobhūṣaṇam’, encapsulating its structural and thematic attributes. According to Mishra, Mahakavya’ is characterized by its adherence to sargas (cantos), making it a poetic composition structured around these divisions. The Mahakavya’, as per Mishra's definition, serves as a source of praise for the world, embodying the sentiments and honour of the people. He outlines the diverse elements that contribute to the grandeur of Mahakavya’. The sargas must encompass varied subjects, ranging from the portrayal of celestial bodies like the moon and the sun to the description of landscapes, festivals, and even the dynamics of social life. Mishra emphasizes that a Mahakavya’ must feature a central character who is revered universally, symbolizing virtues like nobility, charm, and moral character. This character can be a divine being, a virtuous ruler, or any entity that represents the epitome of goodness.
Furthermore, Mishra introduces the requirement of detailing various aspects of life, such as the morning, evening, rivers, mountains, and military campaigns, to create a comprehensive and immersive narrative. The Mahakavya’ should vividly depict stories related to birth, childhood, and other life events, as well as address societal issues and narratives, ensuring that no aspect of human experience is overlooked.
In terms of poetic and literary elements, the verses of Abhirajayaśobhūṣaṇam highlight the importance of following to prosody, rhetorical figures, and diverse expressions like śṛṅgara (erotic), vīra (heroic), and śanta (tranquil) rasas. Mishra suggests that the Mahakavya’ should utilize a range of meters and embellishments, making it a literary work adorned with linguistic richness. Mishra also underlines the multifaceted purpose of Mahakavya’ – serving as a medium for conveying the various aspects of human life, portraying universal values, and providing aesthetic pleasure. Mishra asserts that the ultimate goal of Mahakavya’ is to uplift and satisfy the emotional needs of the readers or listeners. Additionally, he emphasizes that the poet's creative genius should be evident in the composition, contributing to the overall charm and appeal of the Mahakavya’.
Rajendra Mishra's explanation of Mahakavya’ outlines a poetic form that is both expansive and intricate, capturing the essence of life in its entirety while adhering to the principles of aesthetics and literary excellence. 26
Till now, it was exploration of the characteristics of Mahakavya’, and there were the insights of both ancient and modern scholars of Kavyashastra, uncovering the multifaceted nature of this valued literary form. Ancient stalwarts such as Bharata, Rudraṭa, and Vidyanatha laid the foundational principles, focusing on elements like intricate structure, poetic embellishments, and the portrayal of virtuous characters. On the other hand, modern scholars like Rajendra Mishra, Radhavallabh Tripathi, and Rahas Vihari Dwivedi have delved into the specifics, considering diverse themes, structural patterns, and the impact on the audience.
Characteristics of Mahakavya:
consolidating these diverse perspectives, it is an evident that Mahakavya’ is a harmonious blend of tradition and innovation. The ancient principles provide a solid framework, guiding the poet in crafting a composition that resonates with the human experience. Simultaneously, the modern insights infuse flexibility, allowing for creative exploration within the established norms.
Moving forward, a critical examination of the characteristics of Mahakavya’ must synthesize these varied thoughts, emphasizing the interplay between tradition and contemporaneity. This entails considering the nuanced elements highlighted by different scholars and observing their collective impact on the genre. By doing so, we can build a comprehensive understanding that captures the essence of Mahakavya’ in its entirety. Such an approach ensures that the rich legacy of this literary form is preserved while allowing for dynamic interpretations that resonate with evolving sensibilities. to seek the intricate layers of Mahakavya’, this synthesis promises a more holistic appreciation and a deeper engagement in this poetic tradition.
Mahakavya’ is a poetical composition consisting of several cantos. The hero should be a deity or a person of a dignified family, having determination and liberality of heart or several kings of the same noble family may be its heroes. There should be one aṅgīrasa (predominant sentiment) and all the other flavours acting as auxiliary. As for example, Śṛṅgara is the predominant sentiment in the Naiṣadhacarita, Vīra in Śiśupalavadha and Śanta in the Mahabharata The mahakavya should contain all the sandhis or dramatic junctures i.e. mukha, pratimukha, garbha, vimarśa, nivarhana or upasaṃhṛti. The story pertaining to some righteous characters must be originated from history such as the Mahabharata or from any other sources like the Ramayaṇa etc.
Dharma (merit), Artha (wealth), Kama (enjoyment), and Mokṣa (liberation), or it has only one of them. The Mahakavya’ starts with a salutation to a deity or a benediction, or just with the mention of a subject matter leading into the main story of the poem. 27 sometimes, it begins with censure of the wicked and a tribute to the good. It comprises cantos, more than eight in number, neither too short nor too long, each canto consisting of verses set in some particular metre and however, there is a change of metre at the end of the canto. The subject matter of the succeeding canto should be hinted at the end of each canto. In a Mahakavya’ , the following are to be described in it, according to occasion, together with their attendant incidents and circumstances-the sun and the moon, day and night, morning and evening, noon, twilight and darkness, ocean and mountain, woods and hunting, the seasons, the enjoyment and separation of lovers, saints, heaven, city, sacrifice, military march, counsel, marriage, birth of a son etc. Again, a Mahakavya’ should be named after the poet (e.g. the Mahakavya’), the story (e.g. the Kumarasambhava, the Raghuvaṃśa etc.), the hero (e.g. the Naiṣadhacarita), or the villain (Ravaṇavadha, Śiśupalavadha). While, the title of a canto, is to be after the principal matter of it. (e.g. the first canto of the Raghuvaṃśa is named Vaśiṣṭhaśramagamana).
Synthesizing Ancient and Modern Thoughts:
A critical examination requires synthesizing these ancient and modern perspectives. Firstly, the ancient principles provide a solid foundation, emphasizing the aesthetic, linguistic, and structural nuances. The intricate use of language, the incorporation of diverse themes, and the harmonious blend of emotions characterize Mahakavya’ as an enduring art form. On the other hand, modern scholars extend these principles, focusing on the thematic richness, inclusivity, and holistic representation of life. The modern lens allows for a more expansive interpretation of Mahakavya’, accommodating a broader spectrum of subjects and appealing to contemporary sensibilities.
Unified Characteristics:
Structural Complexity: Mahakavya’ exhibits a sophisticated structural design, often divided into sargas or cantos, allowing for a comprehensive exploration of themes.
Thematic Diversity: The genre encompasses a wide array of themes, ranging from mythology, history, and philosophy to the depiction of human experiences and emotions.
Aesthetic Expression: The aesthetic appeal of Mahakavya’ is underscored by the use of elaborate metaphors, similes, and vivid descriptions that evoke sensory experiences.
Holistic Representation: Mahakavya’ aspires to be a holistic representation of life, incorporating diverse facets, from the cosmic to the mundane, mirroring the complexities of the human experience.
Vibrant Narration: The narrative elements, vivid descriptions, and the dynamic interplay of characters contribute to the vibrancy of Mahakavya’, making it a captivating literary form.
Moral and Philosophical Underpinnings: Often, Mahakavya’ serves as a vehicle for conveying moral and philosophical principles, offering insights into ethical conduct, governance, and societal values.
The critical characteristics of Mahakavya’ are evidence to its enduring legacy. This poetic form, deeply entrenched in Indian literary traditions, transcends temporal boundaries, embracing both the ancient and modern nuances. A holistic understanding involves appreciating the intricate weave of structure, themes, and aesthetics that collectively contribute to Mahakavya’ timeless charm.
The main characteristics related to the epic based on all the descriptions are as follows:
1. The story of the epic is divided into sections called ‘sargas.’
2. The protagonist of the epic should be a deity or a noble-born warrior endowed with heroic qualities. Several kings born in the same dynasty can also be the protagonist.
3. It should primarily focus on one of the three flavours of emotions: romance, heroism, or tranquillity, with other flavours serving as supporting elements.
4. It incorporates all the elements of drama, including the introduction, exposition, development, climax, and conclusion.
5. The narrative of the epic is typically historical, and if not historical, it should have a connection with a virtuous person.
6. It should encompass one of the four objectives of life (Dharma, Artha, Kama, Moksha) as its central theme.
7. In the beginning, it includes salutations, introductory verses, and an invocation in the form of an indication of the main story.
8. It includes criticism of the wicked and praise of the virtuous in various places.
9. It should have more than eight sections (sargas), and the size of these sections should not be very small. Typically, each section should employ the same meter, and it is appropriate to change the meter at the end of a section. However, various meters can also be used in different sections.
10. Each section should provide information about the upcoming story.
11. It should appropriately describe various elements such as twilight, the sun, the moon, night, dusk, darkness, day, dawn, noon, hunting, seasons, forests, oceans, sages, heavens, cities, sacrifices, battles, journeys, weddings, chants, sons, and prosperity.
12. The epic should be named after the poet, the subject matter, the protagonist, or any other character, and the sections should be named based on the content of the respective section.
In this way, almost every scholar has defined the characteristics of an epic based on the epics available during their time. However, most modern thinkers consider the thoughts of Vishwanath as authentic, and Vishwanath's ideology is widely accepted in subsequent epics.
Modern Mahakavyas:
Some modern Mahakavya’ do not aim to satisfy all the traditional criteria and take as their subject historical matter (such as Rewa Prasad Dwivedi's Svatantrya Sambhavam on the Indian independence movement, or K.N. Ezhuthachan's Keralodayah on the history of Kerala), or biographies of historical characters (such as S.B. Varnekar's Shrishivarajyodayam on Shivaji, M. S. Aney's Sritilakayasornavah on Bal Gangadhar Tilak, or P. C. Devassia's Kristubhagavatam on Jesus Christ). Some others like the Śrībhargavaraghaviyam (2002) composed by Jagadguru Ramabhadracarya continue to have the subject of the traditional epics.
Mahakavya’ continue to be produced in modern time with some modern effects. Some of these have been awarded the ‘Sahitya Akademi Award’ for Sanskrit. In the introduction to Ṣoḍaśī: An Anthology of Contemporary Sanskrit Poets28 it is said that-
“On the other hand, the number of authors who appear to be very enthusiastic about writing in Sanskrit during these days is not negligible. […] In a thesis dealing with Sanskrit mahakavyas written in a single decade, 1961–1970, the researcher [Dr. Ramji Upadhyaya] has noted 52 Sanskrit mahakavyas (epic poems) produced in that very decade.”29
In the contemporary Sanskrit literature, notable changes can be observed in the poetic thoughts and compositions. These changes primarily manifest in the selection and portrayal of heroes, as well as in the descriptive elements within the works. In modern epics, heroes are not solely determined by their mighty, noble, or royal lineage, but also by their virtuous qualities, irrespective of their background. Rahas Bihari Dvivedi remarks that in recent decades, epics such as Svamivivekanadacaritam, Gandhicaritam, Tilakayaśo’rṇavaḥ, Subhaṣa-caritam, and Gaṅgasagarīyam exhibit characters resembling Sīta and Gaṅga.
CONCLUSION:
Based on all the thoughts and definitions, it can be concluded that the primary objective of an epic is to impart moral teachings and present a way of life rooted in the principles of dharma. In essence, a Mahakavya’ is a lengthy composition characterized by diverse descriptions and intricate construction. It encompasses elements of narrative, theology, or history and is organized into Cantos for the sake of storytelling convenience. The epic possesses a panoramic vision and expansive dimensions. Its plot is intricately woven and follows a dramatic structure, while its characters exude nobility and dignity. The Mahakavya’ serves a noble purpose, advocating moral values, and is crafted in a style that is ornate and grand.
The significant growth, both in terms of quality and quantity, of Mahakavya’ has broadened the scope of study and research in Sanskrit. Exploring the Sanskrit Mahakavya’ from the modern period proves to be an exciting endeavour, as it allows us to grasp the human values advocated by the poets through their kavyas. The poets of the modern era do not adhere to tradition merely for tradition's sake; they recognize the literary merit of this form of long composition, which provides ample opportunity to showcase their creative brilliance and bring together various captivating elements. These poets have dedicated themselves to preserving a language that is gradually diminishing. They continuously strive to compose literature in diverse forms, aiming to safeguard the language's vitality. Furthermore, they are committed to disseminating historical truths and spreading the sublime aspects of Indian culture within contemporary society. Their efforts serve to bridge the gap between the past and the present, preserving and promoting the rich heritage of the language and culture.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST:
The authors have no conflicts of interest regarding this investigation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS:
The author would like to thank Prof. Kashinath Hota, Prof. Ravindra Mulye, Dr. Sachin Gadekar, and Suvarna Vadje for their kind support during and all other studies.
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10. Agnipurāṇa-337. 24-34
11. Kāvyādarśa 1.14-20
12. Sāhityadarpaṇa 6.399-321
13. Vālmīkirāmāyaṇa I.2.42
14. Vālmīkirāmāyaṇa I.3.8
15. Vālmīkirāmāyaṇa VII.94.31
16. NS. XVI.118
17. Bhāmahakāvyālaṅkāra, I.19-23
18. Ibid 19.18-21
19. Kāvyādarśa I.14-22
20. Kāvyānuśāsana, Viii.6
21. Kavyalankära Of Rudrata, Xvi.2 To 19
22. Pratāparudrayaśobhūṣaṇa - Mahākāvyādilakṣaṇam
23. Page 120, (अर्वाचीनमहाकाव्यतत्त्वविमर्शः) Sagarika: Arvachin Sanskrit Mahakavya Visheshanka, (19th year, 1st ed)
24. Abhinavakāvyālankārasūtram, III.1.3
25. Abhinavakāvyālankārasūtram, III.1.2-5
26. Abhirājayaśobhūṣaṇam 1.23-36
27. https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/essay/the-backdrop-of-the-srikanthacarita-and-the-mankhakosa/d/doc370543.html
28. Ṣoḍaśī: An Anthology of Contemporary Sanskrit Poets (1992), Radhavallabh Tripathi
29. Radhavallabh Tripathi, ed. (1992), Ṣoḍaśī: An Anthology of Contemporary Sanskrit Poets, Sahitya Akademi
Received on 04.01.2024 Modified on 01.02.2024
Accepted on 20.02.2024 ©AandV Publications All right reserved
Res. J. Humanities and Social Sciences. 2024;15(2):99-108.
DOI: 10.52711/2321-5828.2024.00015